Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Happiness: Meaning and Determinants Among Young Adults of the Igbos of Eastern Nigeria

  • Research Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Happiness Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The present study explored the constituents of lay conceptions of happiness and its determinants among young adults of the Igbos of Eastern Nigeria. Participants were asked to define happiness and outline the things they think make people happy. Analyses of the responses revealed that participants defined happiness with words reflecting both affect and cognitive evaluation of life. Positive affect words dominated the definitions followed by words reflecting cognitive evaluation of life. Interestingly, participants were more likely to define happiness with focus on the self than with focus on the other, which is contrary to seeming suggestions in literature that non-Western societies view happiness from communalistic perspectives. Significant gender differences occurred in line with findings that females are more likely to express interdependent views of happiness while males usually take individualistic route. Participation, affection, and leisure needs topped participants’ descriptions of the things that make people happy. Interesting relationships emerged among the variables with some contradicting and others confirming previous findings. Implications and limitations of findings were discussed. Suggestions for further studies were also made.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Agbo, A. A., Nzeadibe, T. C., & Ajaero, C. K. (2012). Happiness in Nigeria: A socio-cultural analysis. In H. Selin & G. Davey (Eds.), Happiness across cultures: Views of happiness and quality of life in non-Western cultures (pp. 293–310). Netherland: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Awolowo, O. (1947). Path to Nigerian freedom. London: Faber and Faber.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bagozzi, R. P., Wong, N., & Yi, Y. (1999). The role of culture and gender in the relationship between positive and negative affect. Cognition and Emotion, 13, 641–672.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benet-Martínez, V., & Karakitapoglu-Aygün, Z. (2003). The interplay of cultural syndromes and personality in predicting life satisfaction comparing Asian Americans and European Americans. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 34, 38–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bojanowska, A., & Zalewska, A. M. (2015). Lay understanding of happiness and the experience of well-being: Are some conceptions of happiness more beneficial than others? Journal of Happiness Studies. doi:10.1007/s10902-015-9620-1.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brautigan, D. (1997). Substituting the state: institution and industrial development in Eastern Nigeria. World Development, 25, 1063–1080.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, F. F., Jing, Y., Hayes, A., & Lee, J. M. (2012). Two concepts of two approaches? A bifactor analysis of psychological and subjective well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies. doi:10.1007/s10902-012-9367-x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costanza, R., Fisher, B., Ali, S., Beer, C., Bond, L., Boumans, R., et al. (2007). Quality of life: An approach integrating opportunities, human needs, and subjective well-being. Ecological Economics, 61, 267–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cronje, S. (1972). The world and Nigeria. London: Sidgwick and Jackson.

    Google Scholar 

  • D’raven, L. L., & Pasha-Zaidi, N. (2015). Using the PERMA model in the United Arab Emirates. Social Indicators Research. doi:10.1007/s11205-015-0866-0.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darwin, M., Egerton, W., Falconer, D., & Kiston, A. E. (1913). Southern Nigeria: Some considerations of its structure, people, and natural history: Discussion. The Geographical Journal, 41, 34–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delle Fave, A., Brdar, I., Freire, T., Vella-Brodrick, D., & Wissing, M. P. (2011). The eudaimonic and hedonic components of happiness: Qualitative and quantitative findings. Social Indicators Research, 100, 185–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 542–575.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist, 55(1), 34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., & Suh, E. M. (2000). Culture and subjective well-being. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • D’raven, L. L., & Pasha-Zaidi, N. (2014). Happiness in the United Arab Emirates: conceptualisations of happiness among Emirati and other Arab students. International Journal of Happiness and Development, 2, 1–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eid, M., & Diener, E. (2001). Norms for experiencing emotions in different cultures: inter- and intranational differences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 869.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, A. H., Rodriguez Mosquera, P. M., Van Vianen, A. E., & Manstead, A. S. (2004). Gender and culture differences in emotion. Emotion, 4, 87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guimond, S., Armand, C., Delphine, M., Richard, J. C., & Sandrine, R. (2006). Social compaison, self-stereotyping, and gender differences in self-construals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 221–242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, A. F. (2009). Beyond Baron and Kenny: Statistical mediation analysis in the new millennium. Communication Monographs, 76, 408–420. doi:10.1080/03637750903310360.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henderson, L. W., & Knight, T. (2012). Integrating the hedonic and eudaimonic perspectives to more comprehensively understand wellbeing and pathways to wellbeing. International Journal of Wellbeing, 2, 196–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huta, V., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). Pursuing pleasure or virtue: The differential and overlapping well-being benefits of hedonic and euadaimonic motives. Journal of Happiness, 11, 735–762.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huta, V., & Waterman, A. S. (2014). Eudaimonia and its distinction from hedonia: Developing a classification and terminology for understanding conceptual and operational definitions. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15, 1425–1456.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ip, P. K. (2011). Concepts of Chinese folk happiness. Social Indicators Research, 104, 459–474.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joshanloo, M., & Weijers, D. (2014). Aversion to happiness across cultures: A review of where and why people are averse to happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15, 717–735.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kashdan, T. B., Biswas-Diener, R., & King, L. A. (2008). Reconsidering happiness: The costs of distinguishing between hedonics and eudaimonia. Journal of Positive Psychology, 3, 219–233.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keyes, C. L., Fredrickson, B. L., & Park, N. (2012). Positive psychology and the quality of life. In K. C. Land, et al. (Eds.), Handbook of social indicators and quality of life research (pp. 99–112). Netherlands: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Keyes, C. L. M., Shmotkin, D., & Ryff, C. D. (2002). Optimizing well-being: The empirical encounter of two traditions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 1007–1022.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kitayama, S., Mesquita, B., & Karasawa, M. (2006). Cultural affordances and emotional experience: socially engaging and disengaging emotions in Japan and the United States. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 890.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Korieh, C. J. (2006). African ethnicity as mirage? Historicizing the essence of the Igbo in Africa and the Atlantic diaspora. Dialectical Anthropology, 30, 91–118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Layous, K., Lee, H., Coi, I., & Lymbomirsky, S. (2013). Culture matters when designing a successful happiness-increasing activity: A comparison of the United States and South Korea. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44, 1294–1303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lu, L. (2001). Understanding happiness: A look into the Chinese folk psychology. Journal of Happiness Studies, 2, 407–432.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lu, L., & Gilmour, R. (2004). Culture and conceptions of happiness: Individual oriented and social oriented SWB. Journal of Happiness Studies, 5, 269–291.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005a). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131, 803–855.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyubomirsky, S., Sheldon, K. M., & Schkade, D. (2005b). Pursuing happiness: The architecture of sustainable change. Review of General Psychology, 9, 111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McMahan, E. A., & Estes, D. (2011). Measuring lay conceptions of well-being: The beliefs about well-being scale. Journal of Happiness Studies, 12, 267–287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McMahan, E. A., & Estes, D. (2012). Age-related differences in lay conceptions of well-being and experienced well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 13, 79–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Bureau for Statistics (NBS). (2010). National Literacy Survey. Available at www.nigeriastat.gov.ng.

  • National Bureau of Statistics (NBS). (2014). The Nigeria Poverty Profile 2014 Report. National Bureau of Statistics, Abuja.

  • Oishi, S., & Diener, E. (2014). Can and should happiness be a policy goal? Policy Insights from the Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 1, 195–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oishi, S., Graham, J., Kesebir, S., & Galinha, I. C. (2013). Concepts of happiness across time and cultures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39, 559–577.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oishi, S., & Schimmack, U. (2010). Culture and well-being: A new inquiry into the psychological wealth of nations. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 463–471.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., Coon, H., & Kemmelmeier, M. (2002). Rethinking individualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 3–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peng, K., & Nisbett, R. E. (1999). Culture, dialectics, and reasoning about contradiction. American Psychologist, 54, 741–754.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A classification and handbook. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pflug, J. (2009). Folk theories of happiness: A cross-cultural comparison of conceptions of happiness in Germany and South Africa. Social Indicators Research, 92, 551–563.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raibley, J. R. (2012). Happiness is not well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 13, 1105–1129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological wellbeing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069–1081.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Safdar, S., Friedlmeier, W., Matsumoto, D., Yoo, S. H., Kwantes, C. T., Kakai, H., & Shigemasu, E. (2009). Variations of emotional display rules within and across cultures: A comparison between Canada, USA, and Japan. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 41, 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sastre, M. T. M. (1999). Lay conceptions of well-being and rules used in well-being judgements among young, middle-aged, and elderly adults. Social Indicators Research, 47, 203–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schimmack, U. (2007). Methodological issues in the assessment of the affective component of subjective well-being. In A. Ong & M. H. M. van Dulmen (Eds.), Oxford handbook of methods in positive psychology (pp. 96–110). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schimmack, U., Oishi, S., Diener, E., & Suh, E. (2000). Facets of affective experiences: A framework for investigations of trait affect. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 655–668.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schimmack, U., Radhakrishnan, P., Oishi, S., Dzokoto, V., & Ahadi, S. (2002). Culture, personality, and subjective well-being: integrating process models of life satisfaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 582–593.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, D. P., Realo, A., Voracek, M., & Allik, J. (2008). Why can’t a man be more like a woman? Sex differences in Big Five personality traits across 55 cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfilment. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. New York: Simon & Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stavrova, O., Fetchenhauer, D., & Schlösser, T. (2013). Why are religious people happy? The effect of the social norm of religiosity across countries. Social Science Research, 42, 90–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suh, E., Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Triandis, H. C. (1998). The shifting basis of life satisfaction judgments across cultures: Emotions versus norms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 482.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suh, E. M., & Koo, J. (2008). Comparing subjective well-being across cultures and nations: The “what” and “why” questions. In M. Eid & R. J. Larsen (Eds.), The science of subjective well-being (pp. 414–427). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tov, W., & Diener, E. (2007). Culture and subjective well-being. In S. Kitayama & D. Cohen (Eds.), Handbook of cultural psychology (pp. 691–713). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Uchida, Y., Norasakkunkit, V., & Kitayama, S. (2004). Cultural constructions of happiness: Theory and empirical evidence. Journal of Happiness Studies, 5, 223–239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Uchida, Y., & Ogihara, Y. (2012). Personal or interpersonal construal of happiness: A cultural psychological perspective. International Journal of Wellbeing, 2, 354–369.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Veenhoven, R. (2008). Healthy happiness: Effects of happiness on physical health and the consequences for preventive health care. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9, 449–469.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Veenhoven, R. (2012). Does happiness differ across cultures? In H. Selin & G. Davey (Eds.), Happiness across cultures (pp. 451–472). Netherlands: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Waterman, A. S. (1993). Two conceptions of happiness—contrasts of personal expressiveness (eudaimonia) and hedonic enjoyment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 678–691.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, Y. J., Ho, R. M., Li, P., Shin, M., & Tsai, P. C. (2011). Chinese Singaporeans’ lay beliefs, adherence to Asian values, and subjective well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 822–827.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria

    Aaron Adibe Agbo & Blessing Ome

Authors
  1. Aaron Adibe Agbo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Blessing Ome
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Aaron Adibe Agbo.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Agbo, A.A., Ome, B. Happiness: Meaning and Determinants Among Young Adults of the Igbos of Eastern Nigeria. J Happiness Stud 18, 151–175 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-016-9722-4

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-016-9722-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation