Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Peer Victimization and Depression Symptoms: The Moderating Role of Gender Non-normative Aggression and School Transition

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Child and Family Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The purpose of the study was to test whether gender non-normative aggression and transition to high school moderated the relation between peer victimization and depression symptoms during late childhood and adolescence. Specifically, overt aggression was expected to moderate the relation between peer victimization and depression symptoms for girls and relational aggression was expected to moderate the same relation for girls and boys concurrently and longitudinally. Across time, transition was expected amplify the moderation effect of overt aggression for girls, while accounting for prior depression symptoms. This effect was expected to be stronger during the transition to high school. Transition was also expected to amplify the moderation of relational aggression on peer victimization and depression symptoms. The study consisted of 464 youth, ages 11–16 years with peer-reported peer victimization and aggression (i.e., overt aggression and relational aggression) and self-reported depression symptoms over two time points 1 year apart. Concurrently, overt aggression predicted depression symptoms and overt aggression moderated the association between peer victimization and depression symptoms for girls. For highly overtly aggressive girls, peer victimization predicted later depression symptoms when accounting for prior symptoms. This association was stronger for girls who transitioned than those who did not. Relational aggression was not found to be a moderator of peer victimization and depression symptoms for girls or boys. It may be wise for prevention and intervention efforts to focus on periods of demonstrated risk (e.g., transition to high school) and for those at risk for depression symptoms (e.g., overtly aggressive girls experiencing peer victimization).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aalto-Setälä, T., Marttunen, M., Tuulio-Henriksson, A., Poikolainen, K., & Lönnqvist, J. (2002). Depressive symptoms in adolescence as predictors of early adulthood depressive disorders and maladjustment. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 1235–1237. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.159.7.1235.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alink, L. R. A., Mesman, J., Van Zeijl, J., Stolk, M. N., Juffer, F., Koot, H. M., & Van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (2006). The early childhood aggression curve: Development of physical aggression in 10- to 50-month-old children. Child Development, 77, 954–966. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00912.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 5th edition. Washington, DC: Author.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Angold, A., Costello, E. J., Farmer, E., Burns, B. J., & Erkanli, A. (1999). Impaired but undiagnosed. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(2), 129–137. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199902000-00011.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Angold, A., Costello, E. J., & Worthman, C. M. (1998). Puberty and depression: The roles of age, pubertal status and pubertal timing. Psychological Medicine, 28, 51–61. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003329179700593X.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Banny, A. M., Heilbron, N., Ames, A., & Prinstein, M. J. (2011). Relational benefits of relational aggression: Adaptive and maladaptive associations with adolescent friendship quality. Developmental Psychology, 47, 1153 https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022546.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Barber, B. K., & Olsen, J. A. (2004). Assessing the transitions to middle and high school. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19, 3–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558403258113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beeson, C. M. L., Vaillancourt, T. (2016). The short- and long-term health and education outcomes of peer victimization: Implications for educators and clinicians. 5th edition: In B. Haslam, P. J. Valletutti (Eds.), Medical and psychosocial problems in the classroom: The teacher’s role in diagnosis and management (pp. 445–468). Austin, T.X.: PRO-ED .

  • Birmaher, B., Ryan, N. D., Williamson, D. E., Brent, D. A., Kaufman, J., Dahl, R. E., & Nelson, B. (1996). Childhood and adolescent depression: A review of the past 10 years. Part I. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1427–1439. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199611000-00011.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blain-Arcaro, C., & Vaillancourt, T. (2016). Longitudinal associations between depression and aggression in children and adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 45, 959–970. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0204-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Björkqvist, K. (1994). Sex differences in physical, verbal, and indirect aggression: a review of recent research. Sex Roles, 30, 177–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Card, N. A., & Little, T. D. (2006). Proactive and reactive aggression in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analysis of differential relations with psychosocial adjustment. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 30, 466–480. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025406071904.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Card, N. A., Stucky, B. D., Sawalani, G. M., & Little, T. D. (2008). Direct and indirect aggression during childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic review of gender differences, intercorrelations, and relations to maladjustment. Child Development, 79, 1185–1229. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01184.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2002). A developmental psychopathology perspective on adolescence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70(1), 6–20. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-006X.70.1.6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cleverley, K., Szatmari, P., Vaillancourt, T., Boyle, M., & Lipman, E. (2012). Developmental trajectories of physical and indirect aggression from late childhood to adolescence: Sex differences and outcomes in emerging adulthood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 51, 1037–1051. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2012.07.010.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, D. A., Tram, J. M., Martin, J. M., Hoffman, K. B., Ruiz, M. D., Jacquez, F. M., & Maschman, T. L. (2002). Individual differences in the emergence of depressive symptoms in children and adolescents: A longitudinal investigation of parent and child reports. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 156–165. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-843X.111.1.156.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conway, A. M. (2005). Girls, aggression, and emotion regulation. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 75(2), 334–339. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.75.2.334.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Copeland, W. E., Wolke, D., Angold, A., & Costello, E. J. (2013). Adult psychiatric outcomes of bullying and being bullied by peers in childhood and adolescence. JAMA Psychiatry, 70, 419–426. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.504.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Costello, E. J. & Angold, A. (2006). Developmental epidemiology. 2nd edition: In D. Cicchetti, D.J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental Psychopathology (pp. 41–75). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

  • Costello, E. J., Erkanli, A., SpringerAmpamp; Angold, A. (2006). Is there an epidemic of child or adolescent depression? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 1263–1271. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01682.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Costello, E. J., Mustillo, S., Erkanli, A., Keeler, G., SpringerAmpamp; Angold, A. (2003). Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 837–844.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Côté, S., Vaillancourt, T., LeBlanc, J. C., Nagin, D. S., & Tremblay, R. E. (2006). The development of physical aggression from toddlerhood to pre-adolescence: A nation wide longitudinal study of Canadian children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 68–82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-005-9001-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R. (1997). Engagement in gender normative versus nonnormative forms of aggression. Developmental Psychology, 33, 613–617. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.33.4.610.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., & Grotpeter, J. K. (1995). Relational aggression, gender, and social-psychological adjustment. Child Development, 66, 710–722.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, J. F. (2014). Moderation in management research: What, why, when, and how. Journal of Business and Psychology, 29(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-013-9308-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dodge, K.A., Coie, J.D., & Lynam, D. (2006). Aggression and antisocial behaviour in youth. 6th edition: In W. Damon, R. M. Lerner (Chief Eds.), N. Eisenberg (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of Child Psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development (pp.719–788) Vol. 3. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley.

  • Dutton, D. G., & Karakanta, C. (2013). Depression as a risk marker for aggression: A critical review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 18(2), 310–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.12.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gest, S. D., Sesma, A., Masten, A. S., & Tellegen, A. (2006). Childhood peer reputation as a predictor of competence and symptoms 10 years later. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34(4), 509–526. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-006-9029-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haltigan, J. D., & Vaillancourt, T. (2014). Joint trajectories of bullying and peer victimization across elementary and middle school and associations with symptoms of psychopathology. Developmental Psychology, 50, 2426–2436. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038030.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hawker, D. S., & Boulton, M. J. (2000). Twenty years’ research on peer victimization and psychosocial maladjustment: A meta-analytic review of cross-sectional studies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 41, 441–455. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00629.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haynie, D. L., Nansel, T., Eitel, P., Crump, A. D., Saylor, K., Yu, K., & Simons-Morton, B. (2001). Bullies, victims, and bully/victims: Distinct groups of at-risk youth. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 21, 29–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. 3rd edition. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kovacs, M. (1992). Children’s depression inventory manual. Toronto, ON, Canada: Multi-Health Systems Inc. 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kumpulainen, K., & Räsänen, E. (2000). Children involved in bullying at elementary school age: Their psychiatric symptoms and deviance in adolescence - An epidemiological sample. Child Abuse and Neglect, 24, 1567–1577. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(00)00210-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Little, T. D., Jones, S. M., Henrich, C. C., & Hawley, P. H. (2003). Disentangling the “whys” from the “whats” of aggressive behaviour. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27, 122–133. https://doi.org/10.1080/01650250244000128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, N. A., Arnold, D. H., Rolon-Arroyo, B., & Griffith, S. F. (2015). The association between relational aggression and internalizing symptoms: A review and meta-analysis. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 34, 135–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., Morison, P., & Pellegrini, D. S. (1985). A revised class play method of peer assessment. Developmental Psychology, 21, 523–533. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.21.3.523.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, G. H. (2014). Nasty data: Unruly, ill-mannered observations can ruin your analysis. 2nd edition: In H. T. Reis, C. M. Judd (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology (pp. 608–626). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

  • McDougall, P., & Vaillancourt, T. (2015). Long-term adult outcomes of peer victimization in childhood and adolescence. American Psychologist, 70(4), 300–310. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039174.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McNeish, D. M. (2014). Analyzing clustered data with OLS regression: The effect of a hierarchical data structure. Multiple Linear Regression Viewpoints, 40, 11–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merikangas, K. R., He, J., Burstein, M., Swanson, S. A., Avenevoli, S., Cui, L., & Swendsen, J. (2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in US adolescents: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication–Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(10), 980–989. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2010.05.017.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J. L., Vaillancourt, T., & Boyle, M. H. (2009). Examining the heterotypic continuity of aggression using teacher reports: Results from a national Canadian study. Social Development, 18, 164–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, S. E., Norman, R. E., Suetani, S., Thomas, H. J., Sly, P. D., & Scott, J. G. (2017). Consequences of bullying victimization in childhood and adolescence: a systematic review and meta-analysis. World Journal of Psychiatry, 7, 60 https://doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v7.i1.60.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2017). Mplus user’s guide. 8th edition Los Angeles, CA: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newman, B. M., Newman, P. R., Griffen, S., O’Connor, K., & Spas, J. (2007). The relationship of social support to depressive symptoms during the transition to high school. Adolescence, 42, 441–459.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D. (1978). Aggression in the schools.. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D. (2001). Peer harassment: A critical analysis and some important issues. In J. Juvonen, S. Graham, (Eds.), Peer harassment in school: The plight of the vulnerable and victimized (pp. 3–20). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

  • Ostrov, J. M., & Keating, C. F. (2004). Gender differences in preschool aggression during free play and structured interactions: An observational study. Social Development, 13, 255–277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parker, J. G., Rubin, K. H., Erath, S., Wojslawowicz, J. C., Buskirk, A. (2006). Peer relationships, child development, and adjustment: A developmental psychopathology perspective. 2nd edition: In D. Cicchetti, D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology, risk, disorder, and adaptation (pp. 419–493). Vol. 3. New York, NY: Wiley. .

  • Pellegrini, A. D., Bartini, M., & Brooks, F. (1999). School bullies, victims, and aggressive victims: factors relating to group affiliation and victimization in early adolescence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(2), 216–224. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.91.2.216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J.-Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rohde, P., Lewinsohn, P. M., Klein, D. N., Seeley, J. R., & Gau, J. M. (2013). Key characteristics of major depressive disorder occurring in childhood, adolescence, emerging adulthood, and adulthood. Clinical Psychological Science, 1, 41–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702612457599.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, A. J., & Rudolph, K. D. (2006). A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: Potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys. Psychological Bulletin, 132(1), 98–131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.98.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rudolph, K. D. (2009). The interpersonal context of adolescent de pression. In: In S. Nolen-Hoeksema, L. M. Hilt, (Eds.), Handbook of depression in adolescents (pp. 377–418). New York, NY: Routledge, Taylor Francis Group.

  • Rudolph, K. D., Flynn, M., Abaied, J. L. (2008). A developmental perspective on interpersonal theories of youth depression. In J. R. Z. Abela, B. L. Hankin, (Eds.), Handbook of depression in children and adolescents (pp. 79–102). New York, NY: Guilford.

  • Rutter, M., Kim-Cohen, J., & Maughan, B. (2006). Continuities and discontinuities in psychopathology between childhood and adult life. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 276–295. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01614.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, D., Proctor, L. J., Chien, D. H. (2001). The aggressive victim of bullying. In J. Juvonen, S. Graham (Eds.), Peer harassment in school: The plight of the vulnerable and victimized (pp. 147–174). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

  • Schwartz, D., Gorman, A. H., Nakamoto, J., & Toblin, R. L. (2005). Victimization in the peer group and children’s academic functioning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 425–435. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.97.3.425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, D., Lansford, J. E., Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (2015). Peer victimization during middle childhood as a lead indicator of internalizing problems and diagnostic outcomes in late adolescence. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 44, 393–404. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2014.881293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thapar, A., Collishaw, S., Pine, D. S., & Thapar, A. K. (2012). Depression in adolescence. The Lancet, 379, 1056–1067. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60871-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tremblay, R. E., Japel, C., Perusse, D., McDuff, P., Boivin, M., Zoccolillo, M., & Montplaisir, J. (1999). The search for the age of “onset” of physical aggression: Rousseau and Bandura revisited. Criminal Behavior and Mental Health, 9, 8–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbm.288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ttofi, M. M., Farrington, D. P., Lösel, F., & Loeber, R. (2011). Do the victims of school bullies tend to become depressed later in life? A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 3, 63–73. https://doi.org/10.1108/17596591111132873.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, M. K. (2003). Social aggression in girls. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vaillancourt, T. (2013). Do human females use indirect aggression as an intrasexual competition strategy? Phil Trans R Soc B, 368, 20130080 https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0080.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vaillancourt, T., & Hymel, S. (2006). Aggression and social status: The moderating roles of sex and peer-valued characteristics. Aggressive Behavior, 32, 396–408. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vaillancourt, T. (2017). Indirect aggression and social aggression. In M. H. Bornstein, M. E. Arterberry, K. L. Fingerman, & J. E. Lansford (Eds.), The SAGE encyclopedia of lifespan human development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

  • Vaillancourt, T., Miller, J. L., Fagbemi, J., Côté, S., & Tremblay, R. E. (2007). Trajectories and predictors of indirect aggression: Results from a nationally representative longitudinal study of Canadian children aged 2–10. Aggressive Behavior, 33, 314–326. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20202.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vaillancourt, T., Miller, J. L., Sharma, A. (2010). “Tripping the Prom Queen”: Female intrasexual competition and indirect aggression. In K. Österman (Ed.), Indirect and direct aggression (pp. 17–32). Frankfurt: Peter Lang Publishing Group.

  • Wade, T. J., Cairney, J., & Pevalin, D. J. (2002). Emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence: National panel results from three countries. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 190–198. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200202000-00013.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, P. S., Angermeyer, M., Borges, G., Bruffaerts, R., Chiu, W. T., & De Girolamo, G., et al. (2007). Delay and failure in treatment seeking after first onset of mental disorders in the World Health Organization’s World Mental Health Survey Initiative. World Psychiatry, 6, 177–185.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Weissman, M., Wolk, S., Goldstein, R., Moreau, D., & Adams, P. et al. (1999). Depressed adolescents grown up. JAMA, 281, 1707–1713.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whisman, M. A., & McClelland, G. H. (2005). Designing, testing, and interpreting interactions and moderator effects in family research. Journal of Family Psychology, 19(1), 111–120. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.19.1.111.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whiteford, H. A., Degenhardt, L., Rehm, J., Baxter, A. J., & Ferrari, A. J. et al. (2013). Global burden of disease attributable to mental and substance use disorders: Findings from the Global Burdenof Disease Study 2010. The Lancet, 382, 1575–1586.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, S. B., O’Connor, E. A., Eder, M., & Whitlock, E. P. (2009). Screening for child and adolescent depression in primary care settings: A systematic evidence review for the US preventive services task force. Pediatrics, 123(4), e716–e735. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2008-2415.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yates, T. M., Burt, K. B., Troy, M. F. (2011). A developmental approach to clinical research. In D. Cicchetti, G.I. Roisman (Eds.), Minnesota symposia on child psychology, the origins and organization of adaptation and maladaptation (Vol. 6; pp. 231–282). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Download references

Author contributions:

A.LK. conducted the literature review, wrote the manuscript, cleaned the data, selected and performed statistical analyses, incorporated changes related to feedback from T.V. and from reviewers. T.V. designed the study, wrote ethics and grant applications, recruited participants, provided the data collection and storage, provided the data set, provided expertise and feedback through each phase of the preparation of the manuscript, reviewed and provided final approval for submission for publication.

Funding:

This study was funded by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Canada Research Chairs program and the University of British Columbia Hampton Research Fund.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Counselling Psychology, Faculty of Education, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada

    Amanda L. Krygsman & Tracy Vaillancourt

Authors
  1. Amanda L. Krygsman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tracy Vaillancourt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Tracy Vaillancourt.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained from parents or guardians and informed assent for children participating in the study.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Krygsman, A.L., Vaillancourt, T. Peer Victimization and Depression Symptoms: The Moderating Role of Gender Non-normative Aggression and School Transition. J Child Fam Stud 28, 2531–2542 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1119-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1119-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation