Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Reconciling Work and Caregiving Responsibilities among Older Workers in New Zealand

  • ORIGINAL ARTICLE
  • Published:
Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

There are 432,000 individuals in New Zealand who provide unpaid care for someone who is ill or disabled and 65% of these carers are also in paid employment. The number of older people in the paid workforce is projected to increase in the next two decades. With the median age of carers in 2013 at 49 years, the ageing of both the population and workforce suggests that many carers may still be in paid work as they themselves age. Family care is an essential part of the health care system. Informal care provides many benefits including improved patient outcomes, reduced unnecessary re-hospitalisations and residential care placements, and considerable savings in health care expenditure. However, combining paid work and informal care is problematic for many carers and can impact on their health and wellbeing, and on work-related outcomes by way of reduced work hours, absenteeism, and employment exit. Recent policy initiatives have been implemented to support family carers in New Zealand to remain in or re-enter the workforce. This paper explores the challenges presented to older New Zealanders who combine paid work with caregiving responsibilities. We provide a profile of older workers (aged 55+) who are providing care and analyse the impact of combining paid work and care on their health, wellbeing and economic living standards. Finally, we situate these findings within the policy framework in New Zealand.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Participants could indicate as many conditions as applied.

  2. Regression analyses not shown.

References

  • Alpass, F., & Keeling, S. (2014). Caregiving. Summary report for the New Zealand longitudinal study of ageing. Palmerston North: Massey University http://www.massey.ac.nz/?pabaa4609a.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alpass, F., Towers, A., Stephens, C., Davey, J., Fitzgerald, E., & Stevenson, B. (2007). Independence, wellbeing and social participation in an ageing population. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 1114, 241–250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alpass, F., Stephens, C., Pond, R., Stephenson, B., Keeling, S., & Towers, A. (2013). The influence of ethnicity and gender on caregiver health in older new Zealanders. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 68, 783–793.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Angelo, J., & Egan, R. (2015). Family caregivers voice their needs: A photovoice study. Palliative and Supportive Care, 13, 701–712.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Austen, S., Jefferson, T., Lewin, G., Ong, R., & Sharp, R. (2015). Care roles and employment decision-making: The effect of economic circumstance. Journal of Industrial Relations, 0(0), 1–2. doi:10.1177/0022185615590906.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barusch, A. S., & Spaid, W. M. (1989). Gender differences in caregiving: Why do wives report greater burden? The Geontologist, 29, 667–676.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bauer, J. M., & Sousa-Poza, A. (2015). Impacts of informal caregiving on caregiver employment, health, and family. Population Ageing, 8, 113–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berecki-Gisolf, J., Lucke, J., Hockey, R., & Dobson, A. (2008). Transitions into informal caregiving and out of paid employment of women in their 50s. Socail Science & Medicine, 67, 122–127.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bertrand, R. M., Saczynski, J. S., Mezzacappa, C., Hulse, M., Ensrud, K., & Fredman, K. (2012). Caregiving and cognitive function in older women: Evidence for the health caregiver hypothesis. Journal of Aging and Health, 24, 48–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bourke, J., Pajo, K., & Lewis, K. (2010). Elder care and work-life balance: Exploring the experiences of female small business owners. New Zealand Journal of Employment Relations, 35(1), 17–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyd, M., Broad, J. B., Kerse, N., Foster, S., von Randow, M., Lay-Yee, R., Chelimo, C., Witehead, N., & Connolly, M. (2011). Twenty-year trends in dependency in residential aged care in Auckland, New Zealand: A descriptive study. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 12(7), 535–540.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, W., Bryson, L., Byles, J., Dobson, A., Manderson, L., Schofield, M., & Williams, G. (1996). The Australian longitudinal study on Women's health. Journal of Women's Health, 5(5), 467–472.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brunton, M., Fouche, C., & Jordan, C. (2007). When privilege turns to duty: Balancing work-life commitments as an unpaid caregiver. In M. Waring & C. Fouche (Eds.), Managing mayhem: Work-life balance in New Zealand (pp. 175–199). Wellington: Dunmore.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carmichael, F., & Charles, S. (2003). The opportunity costs of informal care: Does gender matter? Journal of Health Economics, 22, 781–803.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carmichael, F., Charles, S., & Hulme, C. (2010). Who will care? Employment participation and willingness to supply informal care. Journal of Health Economics, 29, 182–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christakis, N. A., & Allison, P. D. (2006). Mortality after the hospitalization of a spouse. New England Journal of Medicine, 354, 719–730.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coe, N. B., & Van Houtven, C. H. (2009). Caring for mom and neglecting yourself? The health effects of caring for an elderly parent. Health Economics, 18, 991–1010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dalziel, L. (2001). The New Zealand positive ageing strategy: Towards a society for all ages. Wellington: Ministry of Social Policy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dautzenberg, M. G. H., Diederiks, J. P. M., Philipsen, H., Stevens, F. C. J., Tan, F. S. E., & Vernooij-Dassen, M. J. F. J. (2010). Research on Aging, 22, 165–187.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davey, J. (2006). The labour market. In J. Boston & J. A. Davey (Eds.), Implications of population ageing: Opportunities and risks (pp. 189–220). Wellington: Institute of Policy Studies, Victoria University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davey, J. A. (2015). Impact on the labour market of the aspirations and preferences of older workers: A policy paper. Palmerston North: Massey University http://www.massey.ac.nz/?p697c3241c.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davey, J., & Keeling, S. (2004). Combining work and eldercare. Wellington: Victoria University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dentinger, E., & Clarkberg, M. (2002). Informal caregiving and retirement timing among men and women: Gender and caregiving relationships in late midlife. Journal of Family Issues, 23, 857–879.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Denton, M., & Walters, V. (1999). Gender differences in structural and behavioral determinants of health: An analysis of the social production of health. Social Science & Medicine, 48, 1221–1235.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Department of Labour. (2011). Review of flexible working arrangements in New Zealand workplaces - survey findings. Wellington: Department of Labour.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drinkwater, S. (2011). Informal caring and labour market outcomes within England and Wales, Discussion paper series // Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit, No. 5877, http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:101:1-201108093041.

  • Elliott, T. R., & Parker, M. (2012). Family caregivers and health care providers: Developing partnerships for a continuum of care and support. In R. C. Talley & J. E. Crews (Eds.), Multiple dimensions of caregiving and disability: Research, practice, policy (pp. 135–152). New York: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Farfan-Portet, M., Popham, F., Mitchell, R., Swine, C., & Lorant, V. (2009). Caring, employment and health among adults or working age: Evidence from Britain and Belgium. European Journal of Public Health, 20, 52–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fortinsky, R. H., Tennen, H., Frank, N., & Affleck, G. (2007). Health and psychological consequences of caregiving. In C. Aldwin, C. Park, & R. Spiro (Eds.), Handbook of health psychology and aging (pp. 227–249). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fursman, L., & Zodgekar, N. (2009). Making it work: The impacts of flexible working arrangements on New Zealand families. Social Policy Journal of New Zealand, 35, 43–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glass, J., Conrad, J., & Kilpatrick, B. (1998). Financial planning for retirement: An imperative for baby boomer women. Educational Gerontology, 24, 595–617.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenwood, N., & Smith, R. (2015). Barriers and facilitators for male carers in accessing formal and informal support: A systematic review. Maturitas, 82, 162–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grimmond, D. (2014). The economic value and impacts of informal care in New Zealand. Infometrics: Report for Carers NZ and NZ Carers Alliance.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haveman, R. (2003). Social security, age of retirement, and economic well-being: Intertemporal and demographic patterns among retired-worker beneficiaries. Demography, 40, 369–394.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heitmueller, A., & Inglis, K. (2007). The earnings of informal carers: Wage differentials and opportunity costs. Journal of Health Economics, 26, 821–841.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henz, U. (2006). Informal caregiving at working age: Effects of job characteristics and family configuration. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68, 411–429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hiel, L., Beenackers, M. A., Renders, C. M., Robroek, S. J. W., Burdorf, A., & Croezen, S. (2015). Providing personal informal care to older European adults: Should we care about the caregivers’ health? Preventive medicine.

  • Irwin, M., Artin, K. H., & Oxman, M. N. (1999). Screening for depression in the older adult: Criterion validity of the 10-item Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). Archives of Internal Medicine, 159, 1701–1704.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, J., Spittal, M., Crichton, S., Sathiyandra, S., & Krishnan, V. (2002). The direct measurement of living standards: The New Zealand ELSI scale. Nga Whakaaturanga Ahuatanga Noho. Wellington: Ministry of Social Development.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, J., Spittal, M., & Krishnan, V. (2005). ELSI short form user manual for a direct measure of living standards. Wellington: Centre for Social Research and Evaluation, Ministry of Social Development.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, R. W., Lo Sasso, A. T. (2000). The trade-off between hours of paid employment and time assistance to elderly parents at midlife. The Urban Institute. http://www.urban.org/research/publication/trade-between-hours-paid-employment-and-time-assistance-elderly-parents-midlife.

  • Jorgensen, D., Parsons, M., Gundersen Reid, M., Weidenbohm, K., Parsons, J., & Jacobs, S. (2008). The providers’ profile of the disability support workforce in New Zealand. Health and Social Care in the Community, 17, 396–405.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jorgenson, D., Parsons, M., Jacobs, S., & Arkssy, H. (2010). The New Zealand informal caregivers and their unmet needs. The New Zealand Medical Journal, 123(1317), 9–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keating, N., Lero, D. S., Fast, J., Lucas, S., & Eales, J. (2013). A framework and literature review on the economic costs of care. In Centre for Families, work & well-being, University of Guelph and research on aging, policies, and practice. Department of Human Ecology: University of Alberta http://www.researchgate.net/publication/236035911_A_framework_and_literature_review_on_the_economic_costs_of_care_for_family_and_friend_caregivers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koopmans, G. T., & Lamers, L. M. (2007). Gender and health care utilization: The role of mental distress and help-seeking propensity. Social Science & Medicine, 64, 1216–1230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Korabik, K., Lero, D., & Whitehead, D. (Eds.), (2008) Handbook of work-family integration: Research, theory, and best practices. London: Academic Press.

  • Lee, C., & Gramotnev, H. (2007). Transitions into and out of caregiving: Health and social characteristics of mid-age Australian women. Psychology and Health, 22, 193–209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, E., & Weissert, W. (2000). Predicting elderly people’s risk for nursing home placement, hospitalization, functional impairment, and mortality: A synthesis. Medical Care Research Review, 57, 259–297.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ministry of Health. (1999). Taking the pulse – The 1996/97 New Zealand health survey. Wellington: Ministry of Health.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moen, P. (1996). A life course perspective on retirement, gender, and well-being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1, 131–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nikora, L., Karapu, R., Hickey, H., & Te Awekotuku, N. (2004). Disabled Māori and disability support options. Prepared for the Ministry of Health. Hamilton: Māori and Psychology Research Unit, University of Waikato, NZ.

    Google Scholar 

  • NZ Census (2006). Retrieved from: http://www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/Census/2006.

  • NZ Census (2013). Retrieved from: http://www.stats.govt.nz/Census/2013-census.aspx.

  • Ory, M., Lee, J., Tennstedt, S., & Schulz, R. (2000). The extent and impact of dementia care: Unique challenges experienced by family caregivers. In R. Schulz (Ed.), Handbook on dementia caregiving (pp. 1–32). New York: Springer Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pavolini, E., & Ranci, C. (2008). Restructuring the welfare state: Reforms in long-term care in western European countries. Journal of European Social Policy, 18, 246–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pinquart, M., & Sorensen, S. (2003a). Differences between caregivers and non-caregivers in psychological health and physical health. Psychological Aging, 18, 250–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pinquart, M., & Sorensen, S. (2003b). Associations of stressors and uplifts of caregiving with caregiver burden and depressive mood. Journal of Gerontology, 58, 112–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salva, J., Almeida, D. M., Davey, A., & Zarit, S. H. (2008). Routine assistance to parents: Effects on daily mood and other stressors. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 63, S154–S161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scharlach, A. E. (1994). Caregiving and employment. Gerontologist, 34, 378–385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schofield, V., Davey, J., Keeling, S., & Parsons, M. (2006). Ageing in place. In J. Boston & J. A. Davey (Eds.), Implications of population ageing: Opportunities and risks (pp. 189–220). Wellington: Institute of Policy Studies, Victoria University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schulz, R., & Beach, S. R. (1999). Caregiving as a risk factor for mortality: The caregiver health effects study. Journal of the American Medical Association, 282, 215–2260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schulz, R., O’Brien, A. T., Bookwala, J., & Fleissner, K. (1995). Psychiatric and physical morbidity effects of dementia caregiving: Prevalence, correlates, and causes. The Gerontologist, 35, 771–791.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, A. J., & McInnis-Dittrich, K. (2015). Meeting the needs of male caregivers by increasing access to accountable care organizations. Journal of Gerontological Social Work. doi:10.1080/01634372.2015.1067852.

  • Singer, G. H. S., Biegel, D. E., & Ethridge, B. L. (2010). Trends impacting public policy support for caregiving families. Journal of Family Social Work, 13, 191–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spillman, B. C., & Long, S. K. (2009). Does high caregiver stress predict nursing home entry? Inquiry, 46, 140–161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Statistics New Zealand. (2007). New Zealand’s 65+ population: A statisticalvolume. Wellington: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Statistics New Zealand (2012). National Labour Force Projections: 2006(base)–2061 (August 2012 update). http://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/population/estimates_and_projections/NationalLabourForceProjections_HOTP06-61Augupdate.aspx.

  • Statistics New Zealand. (2014). http://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/population/estimates_and_projections/NationalPopulationProjections_HOTP2014.aspx.

  • Statistics New Zealand (2015). 2013 Census QuickStats about work and unpaid activities. Available from www.stats.govt.nz.

  • Stephens, M. A., Townsend, A. L., Martire, L. M., & Drule, J. A. (2001). Balancing parent care with other roles. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences 56B: P24–P34.

  • Stephens, C., Alpass, F., & Stevenson, B. (2014). Inclusion, contribution and connection: A study of the ageing in Aotearoa. Summary Report. Palmerston North: Massey University http://www.massey.ac.nz/?p697c3241c.

    Google Scholar 

  • Towers, A., & Stevenson, B. (2014). NZLSA cohort profile. Technical report for the New Zealand longitudinal study of ageing. Palmerston North: Massey University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van de Velde, S., Bracke, P., & Levecque, K. (2010). Gender differences in depression in 23 European countries. Cross-national variation in the gender gap in depression. Social Science & Medicine, 71, 305–313.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vitaliano, P. P., Zhang, J., & Scanlan, J. M. (2003). Is caregiving hazardous to one’s physical health? A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 129(6), 946–972.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ware, J. E., Kosinski, M., & Dewey, J. E. (2000). How to score version two of the SF36 health survey. QualityMetric: Lincoln.

    Google Scholar 

  • Worrall, J. (2009). Grandparents and whanau/extended families raising kin children in Aotearoa/New Zealand. Research report for Grandparents Raising Grandchildren Trust NZ. http://www.grg.org.nz/What+we+do/Publications/Research/Research+Report+2009+-+A+view+over+time.html.

  • Yildirim, D., & Aycan, Z. (2008). Nurses’ work demands and work-family conflict: A questionnaire survey. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 45(9), 1366–1378.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was funded by the Health Research Council of New Zealand (HRC05/311), The Foundation for Research Science and Technology (MAUX0606), Ministry of Science, and Innovation (MAUX1205), the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (MAUX1403) and the New Zealand Earthquake Commission.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Psychology, Massey University, Private Bag, Palmerston North, 11-222, New Zealand

    Fiona Alpass, Joanne Allen & Christine Stephens

  2. Department of Medicine, University of Otago, Christchurch, New Zealand

    Sally Keeling

  3. School of Public Health, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand

    Brendan Stevenson

Authors
  1. Fiona Alpass
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sally Keeling
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Joanne Allen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Brendan Stevenson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Christine Stephens
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Fiona Alpass.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Alpass, F., Keeling, S., Allen, J. et al. Reconciling Work and Caregiving Responsibilities among Older Workers in New Zealand. J Cross Cult Gerontol 32, 323–337 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10823-017-9327-3

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10823-017-9327-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation