Abstract
Temperament, parenting, and executive functioning (EF) are individual and contextual factors that have been identified to play a role in the development of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) symptoms. Specifically, exuberant temperament in toddlerhood has been associated with both adaptive and maladaptive outcomes, including ADHD symptoms. Therefore, it is important to understand factors that predict which exuberant children experience increased ADHD symptoms and the specific mechanisms through which early exuberant temperament impacts later ADHD symptoms. Using a multi-method, prospective longitudinal design, this study examined a moderated mediation model wherein the interactive effects of observed exuberance and parenting at age 3 predicted the development of parent-reported ADHD symptoms from childhood through adolescence (age 5, 7, 9, 12, and 15) via child EF (i.e., inhibitory control) at age 4. Parent–child dyads (n = 291) from a longitudinal study on child temperament were included. A piecewise model of ADHD symptom growth demonstrated stability in ADHD symptoms from age 5–9 and a decrease from age 9–15. Results support a moderated mediation model wherein an increase in ADHD symptoms throughout childhood was predicted from early childhood exuberant temperament by way of EF, but only for children whose parents displayed less directive parenting. Findings suggest identifiable early markers of risk, including temperament, parenting, and EF- pointing to possible targets for early intervention/prevention.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
Data is available upon request to Nathan Fox (fox@umd.edu).
References
Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2000). Manual for the ASEBA preschool forms and profiles: An integrated system of multi-informant assessment.
Achenbach, T., Dumenci, L., & Rescorla, L. (2001). Ratings of relations between DSM-IV diagnostic categories and items of the CBCL/6–18, TRF, and YSR.
Aebi, M., Winkler Metzke, C., & Steinhausen, H.-C. (2010). Accuracy of the DSM-Oriented Attention Problem Scale of the Child Behavior Checklist in Diagnosing Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of Attention Disorders, 13(5), 454–463. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054708325739
Albores-Gallo, L., Lara-Muñoz, C., Esperón-Vargas, C., Zetina, J. A. C., Soriano, A. M. P., & Colin, G. V. (2007). Validity and reliability of the CBCL/6-18. Includes DSM scales. Actas Españolas De Psiquiatría, 35, 393–399.
Anderson, P. J., & Reidy, N. (2012). Assessing Executive Function in Preschoolers. Neuropsychology Review, 22(4), 345–360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-012-9220-3
Baggetta, P., & Alexander, P. A. (2016). Conceptualization and Operationalization of Executive Function. Mind, Brain, and Education, 10(1), 10–33. https://doi.org/10.1111/mbe.12100
Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 65–94.
Belsky, J., Zhang, X., & Sayler, K. (2022). Differential susceptibility 2.0: Are the same children affected by different experiences and exposures? Development and Psychopathology, 34(3), 1025–1033. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579420002205
Berlin, L., Bohlin, G., & Rydell, A.-M. (2004). Relations Between Inhibition, Executive Functioning, and ADHD Symptoms: A Longitudinal Study from Age 5 to 8½ Years. Child Neuropsychology, 9(4), 255–266. https://doi.org/10.1076/chin.9.4.255.23519
Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H. (2010). A Developmental Perspective on Executive Function. Child Development, 81(6), 1641–1660. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01499.x
Blair, C., Raver, C. C., & Berry, D. J. (2014). Two Approaches to Estimating the Effect of Parenting on the Development of Executive Function in Early Childhood. Developmental Psychology, 50(2), 554–565. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033647
Blum, R. W., Astone, N. M., Decker, M. R., & Mouli, V. C. (2014). A conceptual framework for early adolescence: A platform for research. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 26(3), 321–331. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijamh-2013-0327
Chang, L.-Y., Wang, M.-Y., & Tsai, P.-S. (2016). Diagnostic Accuracy of Rating Scales for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 137(3), e20152749. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-2749
Chess, S., & Thomas, A. (1991). Temperament and the Concept of Goodness of Fit. In Explorations in Temperament (pp. 15–28). Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0643-4_2
Chronis-Tuscano, A., Molina, B. S. G., Pelham, W. E., Applegate, B., Dahlke, A., Overmyer, M., & Lahey, B. B. (2010). Very early predictors of adolescent depression and suicide attempts in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67(10), 1044–1051. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.127
Conway, A., & Stifter, C. A. (2012). Longitudinal Antecedents of Executive Function in Preschoolers: Early Antecedents of Executive Function. Child Development, 83(3), 1022–1036. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01756.x
Danielson, M. L., Visser, S. N., Gleason, M. M., Peacock, G., Claussen, A. H., & Blumberg, S. J. (2017). A National Profile of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Diagnosis and Treatment Among US Children Aged 2 to 5 Years. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 38, 455–464. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0000000000000477
Dearing, E., & Hamilton, L. C. (2006). V. Contemporary Advances and Classic Advice for Analyzing Mediating and Moderating Variables. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 71(3), 88–104. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5834.2006.00406.x
Degnan, K. A., Hane, A. A., Henderson, H. A., Moas, O. L., Reeb-Sutherland, B. C., & Fox, N. A. (2011). Longitudinal stability of temperamental exuberance and social-emotional outcomes in early childhood. Developmental Psychology, 47(3), 765–780. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021316
Di Lonardo Burr, S. M., LeFevre, J.-A., Arnold, L. E., Epstein, J. N., Hinshaw, S. P., Molina, B. S. G., Hechtman, L., Hoza, B., Jensen, P. S., Vitiello, B., Pelham, W. E., Jr., & Howard, A. L. (2022). Paths to postsecondary education enrollment among adolescents with and without childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): A longitudinal analysis of symptom and academic trajectories. Child Development, 93(5), e563–e580. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13807
Distefano, R., Galinsky, E., McClelland, M. M., Zelazo, P. D., & Carlson, S. M. (2018). Autonomy-supportive parenting and associations with child and parent executive function. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 58, 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2018.04.007
Durston, S., Thomas, K. M., Yang, Y., Uluğ, A. M., Zimmerman, R. D., Casey, B., & j. (2002). A neural basis for the development of inhibitory control. Developmental Science, 5(4), F9–F16. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7687.00235
Einziger, T., & Berger, A. (2022). Individual differences in sensitivity to positive home environment among children “at risk” for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.927411
Ellis, A., Ahmed, S. F., Zeytinoglu, S., Isbell, E., Calkins, S. D., Leerkes, E. M., Grammer, J. K., Gehring, W. J., Morrison, F. J., & Davis-Kean, P. E. (2021). Reciprocal associations between executive function and academic achievement: A conceptual replication of Schmitt et al. (2017). Journal of Numerical Cognition, 7(3), 453–472. https://doi.org/10.5964/jnc.7047
Enders, C. K., & Bandalos, D. L. (2001). The relative performance of full information maximum likelihood estimation for missing data in structural equation models. Structural Equation Modeling, 8(3), 430–457. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0803_5
Erskine, H. E., Norman, R. E., Ferrari, A. J., Chan, G. C. K., Copeland, W. E., Whiteford, H. A., & Scott, J. G. (2016). Long-Term Outcomes of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Conduct Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 55(10), 841–850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2016.06.016
Fay-Stammbach, T., Hawes, D. J., & Meredith, P. (2014). Parenting Influences on Executive Function in Early Childhood: A Review. Child Development Perspectives, 8(4), 258–264. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12095
Fox, N. A., Henderson, H. A., Rubin, K. H., Calkins, S. D., & Schmidt, L. A. (2001). Continuity and discontinuity of behavioral inhibition and exuberance: Psychophysiological and behavioral influences across the first four years of life. Child Development, 72, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00262
Goldsmith, H. H., & Rothbart, M. K. (1993). The laboratory temperament assessment battery (LAB-TAB). University of Wisconsin.
Halperin, J. M., Bédard, A.-C.V., & Curchack-Lichtin, J. T. (2012). Preventive Interventions for ADHD: A Neurodevelopmental Perspective. Neurotherapeutics, 9(3), 531–541. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-012-0123-z
Hane, A. A., Fox, N., & a, Henderson, H. a, & Marshall, P. J. (2008). Behavioral reactivity and approach-withdrawal bias in infancy. Developmental Psychology, 44(5), 1491–1496. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012855
Hare, M. M., & Graziano, P. A. (2021). Treatment Response among Preschoolers with Disruptive Behavior Disorders: The Role of Temperament and Parenting. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 50(6), 950–965. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2020.1846540
Hawkey, E. J., Tillman, R., Luby, J. L., & Barch, D. M. (2018). Preschool Executive Function Predicts Childhood Resting-State Functional Connectivity and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Depression. Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 3(11), 927–936. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2018.06.011
Isbell, E., Calkins, S. D., Swingler, M. M., & Leerkes, E. M. (2018). Attentional fluctuations in preschoolers: Direct and indirect relations with task accuracy, academic readiness, and school performance. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 167, 388–403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2017.11.013
Johnston, C., & Chronis-Tuscano, A. (2015). Families in ADHD. In R. A. Barkley (Ed.), Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (pp. 191–209). Guilford Press.
Joseph, H. M., Lorenzo, N. E., Fisher, N., Novick, D. R., Gibson, C., Rothenberger, S. D., Foust, J. E., & Chronis-Tuscano, A. (2023). Research Review: A systematic review and meta-analysis of infant and toddler temperament as predictors of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 64(5), 715–735. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13753
Kagan, J., Reznick, J. S., Snidman, N., Gibbons, J., & Johnson, M. O. (1988). Childhood Derivatives of Inhibition and Lack of Inhibition to the Unfamiliar. Child Development, 59, 1580–1589.
Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling.
Kochanska, G., & Aksan, N. (1995). Mother-Child Mutually Positive Affect, the Quality of Child Compliance to Requests and Prohibitions, and Maternal Control as Correlates of Early Internalization. Child Development, 66(1), 236–254. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131203
Kostyrka-Allchorne, K., Wass, S. V., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2020). Research Review: Do parent ratings of infant negative emotionality and self-regulation predict psychopathology in childhood and adolescence? A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective longitudinal studies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 61(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13144
Ku, S., Feng, X., Hooper, E. G., Wu, Q., & Gerhardt, M. (2019). Interactions between familial risk profiles and preschoolers’ emotionality in predicting executive function. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 63, 76–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2019.06.001
Lahat, A., Degnan, K. A., White, L. K., McDermott, J. M., Henderson, H. A., Lejuez, C. W., & Fox, N. A. (2012). Temperamental exuberance and executive function predict propensity for risk taking in childhood. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 847–856. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579412000405
Lahey, B. B. (2004). Commentary: Role of Temperament in Developmental Models of Psychopathology. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 33(1), 88–93. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15374424JCCP3301_9
Lorenzo, N. E., Novick, D. R., Seddio, K., Degnan, K. A., Henderson, H. A., Almas, A. N., Chronis‐Tuscano, A., & Fox, N. (2021). Bidirectional and interactive effects of child temperament and parenting in early childhood on the trajectory of social anxiety in adolescence. Depression and Anxiety, December 2020, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.23224
Markovitch, N., & Knafo-Noam, A. (2021). Sensitivity, but to which environment? Individual differences in sensitivity to parents and peers show domain-specific patterns and a negative genetic correlation. Developmental Science, 24(6), e13136. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.13136
Martel, M. M., Gremillion, M. L., Roberts, B. A., Zastrow, B. L., & Tackett, J. L. (2014). Longitudinal Prediction of the One-Year Course of Preschool ADHD Symptoms: Implications for Models of Temperament-ADHD Associations. Personality and Individual Differences, 64, 58–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.02.018
McLeod, B. D., Wood, J. J., & Weisz, J. R. (2007). Examining the association between parenting and childhood anxiety: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 27(2), 155–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2006.09.002
Meredith, W., & Tisak, J. (1990). Latent curve analysis. Psychometrika, 55(1), 107–122. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02294746
Miller, N. V., Degnan, K. A., Hane, A. A., Fox, N. A., & Chronis-Tuscano, A. (2019). Infant temperament reactivity and early maternal caregiving: Independent and interactive links to later childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 60, 43–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12934
Miller, N. V., Hane, A. A., Degnan, K. A., Fox, N. A., & Chronis-Tuscano, A. (2019). Investigation of a developmental pathway from infant anger reactivity to childhood inhibitory control and ADHD symptoms: Interactive effects of early maternal caregiving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 60(7), 762–772. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13047
Morales, S., Pérez-Edgar, K., & Buss, K. (2016). Longitudinal relations among exuberance, externalizing behaviors, and attentional bias to reward: The mediating role of effortful control. Developmental Science, 19(5), 853–862. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12320
Nigg, J. T., Blaskey, L. G., Huang-Pollock, C. L., & Rappley, M. D. (2002). Neuropsychological Executive Functions and DSM-IV ADHD Subtypes. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 59–66. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200201000-00012
Nigg, J. T., Goldsmith, H. H., & Sachek, J. (2004). Temperament and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: The Development of a Multiple Pathway Model. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 42–53. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15374424JCCP3301_5
Nigg, J. T., Sibley, M. H., Thapar, A., & Karalunas, S. L. (2020). Development of ADHD: Etiology, Heterogeneity, and Early Life Course. Annual Review of Developmental Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-060320
O’Connor, T. G. (2002). Annotation: The `effects’ of parenting reconsidered: Findings, challenges, and applications. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43(5), 555–572. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00046
Orm, S., Øie, M. G., Fossum, I. N., Andersen, P. N., & Skogli, E. W. (2021). Declining Trajectories of Co-occurring Psychopathology Symptoms in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A 10-Year Longitudinal Study. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 724759. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.724759
Ostlund, B., Myruski, S., Buss, K., & Pérez-Edgar, K. E. (2021). The centrality of temperament to the research domain criteria (RDoC): The earliest building blocks of psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 33(5), 1584–1598. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579421000511
Penela, E. (2009). Maternal Socialization of Emotion Regulation: Promoting Social Engagement Among Inhibited Toddlers. http://scholarlyrepository.miami.edu/oa_theses/217/
Pfeifer, M., Goldsmith, H. H., Davidson, R. J., & Rickman, M. (2002). Continuity and Change in Inhibited and Uninhibited Children. Child Development, 73(5), 1474–1485. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00484
Pingault, J.-B., Viding, E., Galéra, C., Greven, C. U., Zheng, Y., Plomin, R., & Rijsdijk, F. (2015). Genetic and Environmental Influences on the Developmental Course of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms From Childhood to Adolescence. JAMA Psychiatry, 72(7), 651–658. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.0469
Putnam, S. P., & Stifter, C. A. (2005). Behavioral Approach-Inhibition in Toddlers_ Prediction From Infancy, Positive and Negative Affective Components, and Relations With Behavior Problems.pdf. Child Development, 76, 212–226.
Ram, N., & Grimm, K. (2007). Using simple and complex growth models to articulate developmental change: Matching theory to method. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31(4), 303–316. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025407077751
Senn, T. E., Espy, K. A., & Kaufmann, P. M. (2004). Using path analysis to understand executive function organization in preschool children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 26, 445–464.
Shaw, M., Hodgkins, P., Caci, H., Young, S., Kahle, J., Woods, A. G., & Arnold, L. E. (2012). A systematic review and analysis of long-term outcomes in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Effects of treatment and non-treatment. BMC Medicine, 10(1), 99. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-10-99
Shephard, E., Bedford, R., Milosavljevic, B., Gliga, T., Jones, E. J. H., Pickles, A., Johnson, M. H., Charman, T., Baron-Cohen, S., Bolton, P., Chandler, S., Elsabbagh, M., Fernandes, J., Garwood, H., Hudry, K., Pasco, G., Tucker, L., & Volein, A. (2019). Early developmental pathways to childhood symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, anxiety and autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 60, 963–974. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12947
Shi, D., DiStefano, C., Zheng, X., Liu, R., & Jiang, Z. (2021). Fitting latent growth models with small sample sizes and non-normal missing data. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 45(2), 179–192. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025420979365
Shi, D., Lee, T., & Maydeu-Olivares, A. (2019). Understanding the Model Size Effect on SEM Fit Indices. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 79, 310–334. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164418783530
Stanislaw, H., & Todorov, N. (1999). Calculation of signal detection theory measures. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 31(1), 137–149. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03207704
Suor, J. H., Sturge-Apple, M. L., Davies, P. T., & Jones-Gordils, H. R. (2019). The interplay between parenting and temperament in associations with children’s executive function. Journal of Family Psychology, 33(7), 841–850. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000558
Swingler, M. M., Isbell, E., Zeytinoglu, S., Calkins, S. D., & Leerkes, E. M. (2018). Maternal behavior predicts neural underpinnings of inhibitory control in preschoolers. Developmental Psychobiology, 60(6), 692–706. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.21742
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using Multivariate Statistics. In Singular Spectrum Analysis. Pearson. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-2514-8_3
Thomas, A., & Chess, S. (1986). The New York Longitudinal Study: From Infancy to Early Adult Life. Psychology Press.
Troller-Renfree, S. V., Buzzell, G. A., Bowers, M. E., Salo, V. C., Forman-Alberti, A., Smith, E., Papp, L. J., McDermott, J. M., Pine, D. S., Henderson, H. A., & Fox, N. A. (2019). Development of inhibitory control during childhood and its relations to early temperament and later social anxiety: Unique insights provided by latent growth modeling and signal detection theory. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 60(6), 622–629. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13025
Valcan, D. S., Davis, H., & Pino-Pasternak, D. (2018). Parental Behaviours Predicting Early Childhood Executive Functions: A Meta-Analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 30(3), 607–649. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-017-9411-9
van der Bruggen, C. O., Stams, G. J. J. M., & Bögels, S. M. (2008). Research review: The relation between child and parent anxiety and parental control: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 49(12), 1257–1269. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01898.x
Visser, S. N., Danielson, M. L., Bitsko, R. H., Holbrook, J. R., Kogan, M. D., Ghandour, R. M., Perou, R., Blumberg, S. J., & Visser, S. (2014). Trends in the Parent-report of Health Care Provider Diagnosed and Medicated ADHD: United States, 2003–2011 HHS Public Access. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 53(1), 34–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2013.09.001.Trends
Willcutt, E. G. (2012). The Prevalence of DSM-IV Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Meta-Analytic Review. Neurotherapeutics, 9(3), 490–499. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-012-0135-8
Willcutt, E. G., Doyle, A. E., Nigg, J. T., Faraone, S. V., & Pennington, B. F. (2005). Validity of the Executive Function Theory of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Meta-Analytic Review. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1336–1346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006
Willoughby, M. T. (2003). Developmental course of ADHD symptomatology during the transition from childhood to adolescence: A review with recommendations. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44(1), 88–106. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.t01-1-00104
Willoughby, M. T., Gottfredson, N. C., & Stifter, C. A. (2017). Observed temperament from ages 6 to 36 months predicts parent- and teacher-reported attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms in first grade. Development and Psychopathology, 29, 107–120. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415001236
Yang, Y., Shields, G. S., Zhang, Y., Wu, H., Chen, H., & Romer, A. L. (2022). Child executive function and future externalizing and internalizing problems: A meta-analysis of prospective longitudinal studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 97, 102194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2022.102194
Zeytinoglu, S., Neuman, K. J., Degnan, K. A., Almas, A. N., Henderson, H., Chronis-Tuscano, A., Pine, D. S., & Fox, N. A. (2022). Pathways from maternal shyness to adolescent social anxiety. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 63(3), 342–349. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13477
Funding
National Institute of Mental Health, U01MH093349, Nathan A Fox.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interests
There are no conflicts of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Lorenzo, N., Bui, H.N., Degnan, K. et al. The Developmental Unfolding of ADHD Symptoms from Early Childhood Through Adolescence: Early Effects of Exuberant Temperament, Parenting and Executive Functioning. Res Child Adolesc Psychopathol 52, 621–634 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-023-01140-2
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-023-01140-2