Abstract
The need for conserving water rises as the resource becomes scarcer. The most essential step in order to manage this resource is to estimate watershed runoff. Runoff and rainfall are the main two sources that maintain ground water and recharge it. Hydrologists in the Kurdistan Region face the challenge of unavailability of data (most watersheds in the area are ungauged) or inaccurate data. The surface runoff of the study area was simulated via soil conservation service-curve number (SCS-CN) technique integrated into geographical information system (GIS). Surface runoff and curve number maps were made using the GIS created and processed data from land use/land cover (LU/LC), daily rainfall, hydrologic soil group and slope thematic maps. The results showed that the urbanization of the Sulaymaniyah watershed has increased the impermeability of the land by 40.9% for the period from 1999 to 2019. The runoff depth was 40.2% higher in 2019 as compared to 1999 due to the increase of the impermeable surface area. Research has also revealed a growth in built-up areas with a decrease of coverage in vegetation, resulting in a greater depth of surface runoff in urban catchment areas.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abdulkareem, J. H. (2019). Development of lag time and time of concentration for a tropical complex catchment under the influence of long-term land use / land cover ( LULC ) changes. Arabian of Journal Geoscience. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-019-4253-z
Ahmad, I., Verma, V., & Verma, M. K. (2015). Application of curve number method for estimation of runoff potential in GIS Environment. 80, 16–20. Doi: https://doi.org/10.7763/IPCBEE
Ali, S., Bonhomme, C., & Chebbo, G. (2016). Evaluation of the performance and the predictive capacity of build-up and wash-off models on different temporal scales. Water. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8080312
Bank, W. (2010). Application of GIS-based SCS-CN method in. Water Science and Engineering, 3(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3882/j.issn.1674-2370.2010.01.001
Cheng, S., & Wang, R. (2002). An approach for evaluating the hydrological effects of urbanization and its application. Hydrological Processes, 16, 1403–1418. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.350
Defersha, M. B., & Melesse, A. M. (2012). Catena Field-scale investigation of the effect of land use on sediment yield and runoff using runoff plot data and models in the Mara River basin. Kenya. Catena, 89(1), 54–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2011.07.010
Defries, R. (2004). Land-use change and hydrologic processes : A major focus for the future. Hydrological Processes, 18, 2183–2186. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.5584
Deshmukh, D. S., Chaube, U. C., Ekube, A., Aberra, D., & Tegene, M. (2013). Estimation and comparison of curve numbers based on dynamic land use land cover change observed rainfall-runoff data and land slope. Journal of Hydrology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.04.001
Driscoll, M. O., Clinton, S., Jefferson, A., Manda, A., & Mcmillan, S. (2010). urbanization effects on watershed hydrology and in-stream processes in the Southern United States. Water, 2(3), 605–648. https://doi.org/10.3390/w2030605
Du, S., Van, R. A., & Shi, P. (2015). A dual effect of urban expansion on flood risk in the Pearl River Delta ( China ) revealed by land-use scenarios and direct runoff simulation. Natural Hazards. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-014-1583-8
Fullen, M. A., Booth, C. A., & Brandsma, R. T. (2006). Long-term effects of grass ley set-aside on erosion rates and soil organic matter on sandy soils in east Shropshire UK. Soil and Tillage Research, 89, 122–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2005.07.003
Gajbhiye, S. (2016). Estimation of surface runoff using remote sensing and geographical estimation of surface runoff using remote sensing and geographical information system. IJUNESST. https://doi.org/10.14257/ijunesst.2015.8.4.12
Hasan Mohammed Hameed, G. R. F., & Rasul, A. (2020). Effects of land cover change on surface runoff using gis and remote sensing: A Case Study Duhok Sub-basin. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21344-2_20
Herrmann, H., & Bucksch, H. (2014). Handbook of Hydrology. Dictionary Geotechnical Engineering/wörterbuch GeoTechnik. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-41714-6_80111
Hu, S., Fan, Y., & Zhang, T. (2020). Assessing the effect of land use change on surface runoff in a rapidly Urbanized City : A case study of the Central Area of Beijing. Land, 9(1), 17.
Ibrahim, G. R. F., Rasul, A., Hamid, A. A., Ali, Z. F., & Dewana, A. A. (2019). Suitable site selection for rainwater harvesting and storage case study using Dohuk governorate. Water (Switzerland), 11(4), 864. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11040864
Kannan, S. S. S. V. R. (2017). Rainfall – runoff estimation using SCS – CN and GIS approach in the Pappiredipatti watershed of the Vaniyar sub basin, South India. Modeling Earth Systems and Environment, 3(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-017-0301-4
Kayet, N., Pathak, K., Chakrabarty, A., & Sahoo, S. (2018). International soil and water conservation research evaluation of soil loss estimation using the RUSLE model and SCS-CN method in hillslope mining areas. International Soil and Water Conservation Research, 6(1), 31–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswcr.2017.11.002
Khare, D., Patra, D., Mondal, A., & Kundu, S. (2017). Impact of landuse / land cover change on run-off in the catchment of a hydro power project. Applied Water Science, 7(2), 787–800. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-015-0292-0
Kibler, David,. (1982). Urban Stormwater Hydrology, water resource monograph series.
Kowalik, T., & Walega, A. (2015). Estimation of CN parameter for small agricultural watersheds using asymptotic functions. Water, 7(12), 939–955. https://doi.org/10.3390/w7030939
Kumar, A., & Sharma, M. P. (2016). A modeling approach to assess the greenhouse gas risk in Koteshwar hydropower reservoir, India. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 22(8), 1651–1664.
Li, C., Liu, M., Hu, Y., Gong, J., & Xu, Y. (2016). Modeling the quality and quantity of runoff in a highly urbanized catchment using storm water management model. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies. https://doi.org/10.15244/pjoes/60721
Li, C., Liu, M., Hu, Y., Shi, T., Zong, M., & Walter, M. T. (2018). Assessing the impact of urbanization on direct runoff using improved composite CN method in a large urban area. International Journal of Environment Research and Public Health. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15040775
Li, Z., Xie, C., Chen, D., Lu, H., & Che, S. (2020). Effects of land cover patterns on land surface temperatures associated with land use types along urbanization gradients in Shanghai China. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 29(1), 713–725. https://doi.org/10.15244/pjoes/99974
Maalim, F. K., Melesse, A. M., Belmont, P., & Gran, K. B. (2013). Catena Modeling the impact of land use changes on runoff and sediment yield in the Le Sueur watershed, Minnesota using GeoWEPP. CATENA, 107, 35–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2013.03.004
Maetens, W. (2012). Effects of land use on annual runoff and soil loss in Europe and the mediterranean : A Meta-Analysis of Plot Data. Progress in Physical Geography. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309133312451303
Maniquiz, M. C., Lee, S., & Kim, L. (2010). Multiple linear regression models of urban runo ff pollutant load and event mean concentration considering rainfall variables. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 22(6), 946–952. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(09)60203-5
Mcgrane, S. J. (2016). Impacts of urbanisation on hydrological and water quality dynamics, and urban water management : A review water management : A review. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 61(13), 2295–2311. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2015.1128084
Melesse, A. M., & Shih, S. F. (2003). Spatially distributed storm runoff depth estimation using Landsat images and GIS. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 37(1–3), 173–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1699(02)00111-4
Miller, J. D., Kim, H., Kjeldsen, T. R., Packman, J., Grebby, S., & Dearden, R. (2014). Assessing the impact of urbanization on storm runo_ in a peri-urban catchment using historical change in impervious cover. Journal of Hydrology, 515, 59–70.
Mishra, A., Kar, S., & Singh, V. P. (2007). Prioritizing structural management by quantifying the effect of land use and land cover on watershed runoff and sediment yield. Water Resources Management., 21, 1899–1913. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-006-9136-x
Mustafa, E. K., Liu, G., Abd, H. T., & Kaloop, M. R. (2019). Simulation of land use dynamics and impact on land surface temperature using satellite data. GeoJournal. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-019-10115-0
Olang, L. O. (2011). Effects of land cover change on flood peak discharges and runoff volumes : Model estimates for the Nyando River Basin, Kenya. Hydrological Processes, 25, 80–89. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7821
Press, C. (2020). The Effect of Urbanization on Kinetic Energy Distributions in Small Watersheds Author ( s ): Douglas S . Cherkauer Source : The Journal of Geology , Vol . 86 , No . 4 ( Jul ., 1978 ), pp . 505–515 Published by : The University of Chicago Press Stable URL . 86(4), 505–515.
Qi, W., & Liu, J. (2019). Studies on changes in extreme flood peaks resulting from land-use changes need to consider roughness variations. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 64, 2015–2024.
Ramakrishnan, D., Bandyopadhyay, A., & Kusuma, K. N. (2009). SCS-CN and GIS-based approach for identifying potential water harvesting sites in the Kali Watershed, Mahi River Basin India. Journal of Earth System Science, 118(4), 355–368. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-009-0034-5
Ramasamy, S. M. (2005). Remote sensing and GIS for artificial recharge study, runoff estimation and planning in Ayyar basin. Tamil Nadu, India. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-005-1284-4
Rasul, G., & Ibrahim, F. (2017). Urban land use land cover changes and their effect on land surface temperature: Case study using Dohuk City in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq. Climate. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli5010013
Salih, F. A., Othman, N., Muhidin, F. M., & Kasem, A. O. (2015). Assessment of the quality of water in Sulaimaniyah City, Kurdistan assessment of the quality of water in Sulaimaniyah City, Kurdistan Region Iraq. Current World Environment, 3, 781–791. https://doi.org/10.12944/CWE.10.3.08
Sciences, A., Wv, W., & Accepted, U. K. (1998). Effects of grass ley set-aside on runoff , erosion and organic matter levels in sandy soils in east Shropshire , UK. 46, 41–49.
Simmons, L., & Reynold’s, D. R. (1983). effects of urbanization on flow of selected south-shore streams long Island New York. Water Resources Bulletin, 18(5), 797–805.
Sinha, M. K., Baghel, T., & Baier, K. (2019). Impact of urbanization on surface runoff characteristics at catchment scale. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2044-6
Soulis, Konstantinos X. (2016). SCS-CN parameter determination using rainfall-runoff data in heterogeneous watersheds – the two-CN system approach. Februaryhttps://doi.org/10.5194/hess-16-1001-2012
Soulis, K. X., Valiantzas, J. D., Dercas, N., & Londra, P. A. (2009). Investigation of the direct runoff generation mechanism for the analysis of the SCS-CN method applicability to a partial area experimental watershed. Hydrology and Earth System Science, 13(5), 605–615.
Suribabu, C. R., & Bhaskar, J. (2014). Evaluation of urban growth effects on surface runoff using SCS-CN method and Green-Ampt infiltration model. Earth Science Information. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12145-014-0193-z
Tramblay, Y., Bouvier, C., Martin, C., Didon-lescot, J., Todorovik, D., & Domergue, J. (2010). Assessment of initial soil moisture conditions for event-based rainfall – runoff modelling. Journal of Hydrology, 387(3–4), 176–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.04.006
Viji, R., Prasanna, P. R., & Ilangovan, R. (2015). Modified SCS-CN and green-ampt methods in surface runoff modelling for the Kundahpallam Watershed, Nilgiris, Western. Aquatic Procedia, 4, 677–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqpro.2015.02.087
Walega, A., Salata, T., & Cover, C. L. (2019). Catena Influence of land cover data sources on estimation of direct runoff according to SCS-CN and modified SME methods. CATENA, 172, 232–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2018.08.032
Weerasinghe, H., Schneider, U. A., & Löw, A. (2011). Water harvest- and storage- location assessment model using GIS and remote sensing. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions, 8(2), 3353–3381. https://doi.org/10.5194/hessd-8-3353-2011
Weng, Q. (2001). Modeling urban growth effects on surface runoff with the integration of remote sensing and GIS. Environmental Management, 28(6), 737–748. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002670010258
Zare, M., Akbar, A., Samani, N., & Mohammady, M. (2016). The impact of land use change on runoff generation in an urbanizing watershed in the north of Iran. Environmental Earth Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-016-6058-7
Zhan, X., Huang, M., & Ave, C. (2004). ArcCN-Runoff : An ArcGIS tool for generating curve number and runoff maps. Environmental Modeling and Software, 19, 875–879. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2004.03.001
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
G.I. contributed to the methodology, software, validation, formal analysis, investigation, resources and data curation; G.I. and BA.KH were involved in the writing—original draft preparation; G.I., BA.KH., A.A. and SH.A. contributed to writing—review and editing; G.I. contributed to visualization.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Khzr, B.O., Ibrahim, G.R.F., Hamid, A.A. et al. Runoff estimation using SCS-CN and GIS techniques in the Sulaymaniyah sub-basin of the Kurdistan region of Iraq. Environ Dev Sustain 24, 2640–2655 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-01549-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-01549-z