Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Evaluation of soil pollution by heavy metal using index calculations and multivariate statistical analysis

  • Research
  • Published:
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study aims to assess the extent of heavy metals (HMs) pollution in soil and identify its potential sources using single and integrated pollution index calculations, and multivariate statistical analysis. The HM concentrations of soil samples were analyzed using ICP-MS. The concentrations (mg/kg) of arsenic (As) ranged from 2.8 to 208.1, cadmium (Cd) from 0.1 to 0.3, cobalt (Co) from 1.9 to 20.5, copper (Cu) from 3.7 to 17.7, nickel (Ni) from 14.7 to 110.6, and lead (Pb) from 6.7 to 37.3. High levels of As contents and physicochemical parameters were found in the northeastern parts of the study area, while levels of other HMs were high in the remaining parts. The HM contents of some soil samples exceeded the average values of basalt and limestone in the study area, as well as the upper, bulk, and lower continental crusts, shale, and soil (worldwide). Multiple index methods were used to assess the pollution risk, and it was determined that some soil samples were moderately to considerably contaminated with varying levels of As, Cd, Co, Ni, and Pb. Multivariate statistical analyses provided that the source of HMs contamination in the soil was a result of geogenic and/or anthropogenic activities. Geogenic sources were associated with weathering rock units, while anthropogenic sources were linked to industrial activities, traffic emissions, and agricultural applications. The findings are useful for detecting contamination by HMs in soil, and they could contribute to future monitoring programs to prevent soil contamination and protect the health of living organisms.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Similar content being viewed by others

Data Availability

This article includes all data that was generated or analysed during this study.

References

  • Abrahams, P. W. (2002). Soils: their implications to human health. Science of the Total Environment, 291(1-3), 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(01)01102-0

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Abrahim, G. M. S., & Parker, R. J. (2008). Assessment of heavy metal enrichment factors and the degree of contamination in marine sediments from Tamaki Estuary, Auckland, New Zealand. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 136, 227–238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-9678-2

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Akoto, O., Yakubu, S., Ofori, L. A., Bortey-Sam, N., Boadi, N. O., Horgah, J., & Sackey, L. N. (2023). Multivariate studies and heavy metal pollution in soil from gold mining area. Heliyon, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e12661

  • Alizadeh, A., Ghorbani, J., Motamedi, J., Vahabzadeh, G., van der Ent, A., & Edraki, M. (2024). Soil contamination around porphyry copper mines: an example from a semi-arid climate. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 196(2), 204. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-024-12384-w

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alloway, B. J. (2013). Sources of heavy metals and metalloids in soils. In B. J. Alloway (Ed.), heavy metals in soils. Environmental Pollution (p. 22). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4470-7_2

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • ATSDR. (2007). Toxicological profile for arsenic. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, August 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  • ATSDR. (2012). Toxicological profile for cadmium. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, September 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  • ATSDR. (2020). Toxicological profile for lead. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, August 2020.

    Google Scholar 

  • ATSDR. (2023a). Toxicological profile for cobalt. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, January 2023.

    Google Scholar 

  • ATSDR. (2023b). Toxicological profile for nickel. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, August 2023.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bala, N., Pakade, Y. B., Mahurkar, M., Kadaverugu, R., & Minakshi, & Katnoria, J.K. (2024). Spatial distribution and source identification of metal contaminants in soil and rice grain samples: a study on exploration of soil quality and risk assessment. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 196(3), 260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-024-12434-3

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beekman, P. H. (1966). The Pliocene and Quaternary volcanism in the Hasandağ-Melendiz dağ region. Bulletin of the Mineral Research and Exploration, 66, 88–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowen, H. J. M. (1979). The environmental chemistry of the elements. Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Briffa, J., Sinagra, E., & Blundell, R. (2020). Heavy metal pollution in the environment and their toxicological effects on humans. Heliyon, 6(9), e04691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04691

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, H., Teng, Y., Lu, S., Wang, Y., & Wang, J. (2015). Contamination features and health risk of soil heavy metals in China. Science of the Total Environment, 512, 143–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.01.025

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coşkun, M., Steinnes, E., Frontasyeva, M. V., Sjobakk, T. E., & Demkina, S. (2006). Heavy metal pollution of surface soil in the Thrace region, Turkey. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 119, 545–556. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-005-9042-3

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Denkhaus, E., & Salnikow, K. (2002). Nickel essentiality, toxicity, and carcinogenicity. Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology, 42(1), 35–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1040-8428(01)00214-1

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Demirela, G., Yilmazer, E., & Kavurmaci, M. M. (2020). Hydrogeochemical, geotechnical and soil geochemistry characteristics of Aksaray University campus area, Aksaray. Aksaray University Journal of Science and Engineering, 4(1), 90–112. https://doi.org/10.29002/asujse.712844

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dönmez, M., & Akçay, A.E. (2005). 1:100.000 Ölçekli Turkey Jeoloji Haritaları: Aksaray-L31 Paftası. General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration (MTA; Maden Tetkik Arama Genel Müdürlüğü), No: 51, Ankara (In Turkish with English abstract)

  • Dönmez, M., Akçay, A.E., Kara, H., Türkecan, A., Yergök, A.F., & Esentürk, K. (2005). 1:100.000 Ölçekli Turkey Jeoloji Haritaları: Aksaray-L32 Paftası. General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration (MTA; Maden Tetkik Arama Genel Müdürlüğü), No: 52, Ankara (In Turkish with English abstract)

  • Durdu, B. (2018). Determination of Soil Pollution in Arable Lands. Unpublished M.Sc. thesis, Aksaray University Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences (In Turkish with English abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO & UNEP. (2021). Global Assessment of Soil Pollution-Summary for Policy Makers. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4827en

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Gao, Z., Tan, M., Liu, J., Zhang, Y., Niu, Y., & Jiang, B. (2024). Characterization of soil trace metal pollution, source identification, and health risk assessment in the middle reaches of the Guihe River Basin. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 196(2), 122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-12280-9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Göncüoğlu, M. C., Toprak, V., Kuşcu, İ., Erler, A., & Olgun, E. (1991). Orta Anadolu masifinin batı bölümünün jeolojisi, Bölüm 1-Güney Kesim (Vol. 2909, p. 140). Turkish Petroleum Corporation (TPAO) Report (In Turkish with English abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Göncüoğlu, M. C., Toprak, V., Kuşcu, İ., Erler, A., Olgun, E., & Rojay, B. (1992). Orta Anadolu Masifinin batı bölümünün jeolojisi, Bölüm 2: Orta Kesim (Vol. 3155, p. 76). Turkish Petroleum Corporation (TPAO) Report (In Turkish with English abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hakanson, L. (1980). An ecological risk index for aquatic pollution control, a sedimentological approach. Water Research, 14(8), 975–1001. https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(80)90143-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haynes, W. M. (Ed.). (2011). CRC handbook of chemistry and physics (92nd ed.). CRC press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoque, M. M., Islam, A., Islam, A. R. M. T., Pal, S. C., Mahammad, S., & Alam, E. (2023). Assessment of soil heavy metal pollution and associated ecological risk of agriculture dominated mid-channel bars in a subtropical river basin. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 11104. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-38058-0

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • IARC. (1993). Beryllium, cadmium, mercury, and exposures in the glass manufacturing industry (Vol. 58). International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) Monogragphs on the Evaluation of Carcinegenic Risks to Humans, World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • Islam, M. S., Ahmed, M. K., Raknuzzaman, M., Habibullah-Al-Mamun, M., & Islam, M. K. (2015). Heavy metal pollution in surface water and sediment: a preliminary assessment of an urban river in a developing country. Ecological Indicators, 48, 282–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2014.08.016

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kalkan, M., & Terzi, M. H. (2023). Assessment of heavy metal pollution of the soils in the southwest of Aksaray city. Recep Tayyip Erdogan University Journal of Science and Engineering, 4(2), 219–231 (In Turkish with English abstract). https://doi.org/10.53501/rteufemud.1360204

    Google Scholar 

  • Kavurmacı, M. M., & Yardımlı, B. B. T. (2020). Determination using interpolation techniques of spatial distribution of groundwater quality in the Aksaray region. DSİ Teknik Bülteni, 135, 1–17 (In Turkish with English abstract).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaye, G. W. C., & Laby, T. H. (1986). Tables of physical and chemical constants (15th ed.). John Wiley and Sons Inc..

    Google Scholar 

  • Kemp, D. D. (1998). The Environment Dictionary. Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koljonen, T. (Ed.). (1992). Geochemical Atlas of Finland, Part 2: Till (p. 218). Geological Survey of Finland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krige, D. G. (1966). Two-dimensional weighted moving average trend surfaces for ore evaluation. Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 66, 13–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lam, E. J., Urrutia, J., Bech, J., Herrera, C., Montofré, Í. L., Zetola, V., Álvarez, F. A., & Cánovas, M. (2023). Heavy metal pollution index calculation in geochemistry assessment: a case study on Playa Las Petroleras. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 45(2), 409–426. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-022-01272-2

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lauwerys, R., & Lison, D. (1994). Health risks associated with cobalt exposure - an overview. Science of The Total Environment, 150(1-3), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/0048-9697(94)90125-2

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leyssens, L., Vinck, B., Van Der Straeten, C., Wuyts, F., & Maes, L. (2017). Cobalt toxicity in humans-a review of the potential sources and systemic health effects. Toxicology, 387, 43–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2017.05.015

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, J., Zheng, Q., Pei, S., Li, J., Ma, L., Zhang, L., Niu, J., & Tian, T. (2024). Ecological and health risk assessment of heavy metals in agricultural soils from northern China. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 196(1), 99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-12255-w

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maanan, M., Saddik, M., Maanan, M., Chaibi, M., Assobhei, O., & Zourarah, B. (2015). Environmental and ecological risk assessment of heavy metals in sediments of Nador lagoon, Morocco. Ecological Indicators, 48, 616–626. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2014.09.034

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, S., & Griswold, W. (2009). Human health effects of heavy metals. Environmental Science and Technology Briefs for Citizens, 15(5), 1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matheron, G. (1963). Principles of geostatistics. Economic Geology, 58, 1246–1266. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.58.8.1246

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Matheron, G. (1989). Estimating and Choosing. Springer-Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-48817-7

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Mirsal, I. A. (2008). Soil Pollution Origin, Monitoring & Remediation (2nd ed.). Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-70777-6

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Mvile, B. N., Abu, M., & Kalimenze, J. D. (2023). Assessment of heavy metals concentration in soils in the central parts of Tanzania using pollution indices and multivariate statistical approach: implication on the source and health. Journal of Sedimentary Environments, 8(3), 457–469. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43217-023-00144-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muller, G. (1969). Index of geo-accumulation in sediments of the Rhine River. GeoJournal, 2(3), 108–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nemerow, N. L. (1985). Stream, Lake, Estuary, and Ocean Pollution. Van Nostrand Reinhold Publishing C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Özyigit, İ. İ. (2021). Heavy metals in agricultural soils; origins, distribution and effects. Ereğli. Journal of Agricultural Science, 1(1), 46–71 (In Turkish with English abstract). https://doi.org/10.54498/etbd.2021.5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qin, G., Niu, Z., Yu, J., Li, Z., Ma, J., & Xiang, P. (2021). Soil heavy metal pollution and food safety in China: Effects, sources and removing technology. Chemosphere, 267, 129205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.129205

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pan, J., Plant, J. A., Voulvoulis, N., Oates, C. J., & Ihlenfeld, C. (2010). Cadmium levels in Europe: implications for human health. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 32(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-009-9273-2

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reimann, C., & De Caritat, P. (1998). Chemical Elements in the Environment: Factsheets for the Geochemist and Environmental Scientist (1st ed.). Springer-Verlag.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Richards, L. A. (1954). Diagnosis and Improvement of Saline and Alkali Soils. In United States Department of Agriculture, Handbook No: 60. US Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodríguez-Eugenio, N., McLaughlin, M., & Pennock, D. (2018). Soil Pollution: a Hidden Reality (p. 142). FAO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharma, A. D. (2013). Low nickel diet in dermatology. Indian Journal of Dermatology, 58(3), 240. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5154.110846

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. R., & McLennan, S. M. (1995). The geochemical evolution of the continental crust. Reviews of Geophysics, 33, 241–265. https://doi.org/10.1029/95RG00262

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terzi, M. H. (2021). The mining of turkey in the period of mustafa kemal ataturk. The Journal of Atatürk Research Center, 37(104), 115–172 (In Turkish with English abstract). https://doi.org/10.33419/aamd.1015946

    Google Scholar 

  • Ulu, Ü., Bulduk, A.K., Ekmekçi, E., Karakaş, M., Öcal, H., Arbas, A., Saçlı, L., Taşkıran, M.A., Adır, M., Sözeri, Ş., & Karabıyıkoğlu, M. (1994). İnlice-Akkise ve Cihanbeyli-Karapınar alanının jeolojisi. General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration Report, 9720, Ankara

  • Wagner, G. J. (1993). Accumulation of Cadmium in crop plants and its consequences to human health. Advances in Agronomy, 51, 173–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2113(08)60593-3

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Z., Luo, P., Zha, X., Xu, C., Kang, S., Zhou, M., Nover, D., & Wang, Y. (2022). Overview assessment of risk evaluation and treatment technologies for heavy metal pollution of water and soil. Journal of Cleaner Production, 379, 134043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.134043

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Webster, R., & Oliver, M. A. (2007). Geostatistics for Environmental Scientists (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Wedepohl, K. H. (1995). The composition of the continental crust. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 59(7), 1217–1232. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(95)00038-2

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wei, J., Zheng, X., & Liu, J. (2023). Modeling analysis of heavy metal evaluation in complex geological soil based on Nemerow index method. Metals, 13(2), 439. https://doi.org/10.3390/met13020439

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • WHO. (2000). Air quality guidelines for Europe (2nd ed.). WHO (World Health Organization) Regional Publications, European Series, No.91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yaron, B., Calvet, R., Prost, R., & Prost, R. (1996). Soil Pollution: Processes and Dynamics (First ed.). Springer-Verlag.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Yılmazer, E., & Terzi, M. H. (2023). Geochemical investigation of soil quality in terms of toxic elements using an AHP-based index. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 45, 8271–8294. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-023-01720-7

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhong, L., Liu, L., & Yang, J. (2010). Assessment of heavy metals contamination of paddy soil in Xiangyin county, China. In 19th World Congress of Soil Science, Soil Solutions for a Changing World, 1-6 August 2010. c/o Institut für Bodenforschung, Universität für Bodenkultur.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge the Research Fund of the Aksaray University for their financial support (Project number: 2023-016).

Funding

This research was supported by the Research Fund of the Aksaray University under project number: 2023-016.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Geological Engineering, Aksaray University, Aksaray, Turkey

    Mustafa Haydar Terzi & Murat Kalkan

Authors
  1. Mustafa Haydar Terzi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Murat Kalkan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Mustafa Haydar Terzi: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Visualization. Murat Kalkan: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Writing – review & editing.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mustafa Haydar Terzi.

Ethics declarations

Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate

Not applicable

Competing Interests

The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.

Additional information

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Terzi, M.H., Kalkan, M. Evaluation of soil pollution by heavy metal using index calculations and multivariate statistical analysis. Environ Monit Assess 196, 443 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-024-12569-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-024-12569-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation