Abstract
The reactions between natural organic matter, anthropogenic contaminants, ions, and disinfectants lead to the formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) such as trihalomethanes (THMs) in drinking water. The formation of THMs is strongly related to the chlorination of water. The study’s central objective was to compare the concentration of THMs in twenty developed and developing countries and their disinfection techniques. The THM concentration in 11 developed and 9 developing countries ranged from 0.5 µg/L (Germany) to 215 µg/L (Russia) and 3 µg/L (China) to 439.2 µg/L (Bangladesh), respectively. The developed country has partially succeeded in reducing THM concentration in drinking water, whereas significant steps are needed in developing countries to reduce the existing high THM concentration. The concentration of THMs in water varies among these countries because of the different water sources, water quality, environmental conditions, and efficiency of water treatment technologies. A meaningful relationship has been observed between the properties of water and the THM formation. The use of chemical disinfectants will result in new forms of DBPs that are undesirable due to their carcinogenic and mutagenic effects on human health. The DBP guidelines by various national and international agencies have helped to control and manage the THM concentration in drinking water. However, these regulatory standards are not continuously monitored. Therefore, the formation of these compounds should be prevented either by removing THMs forming precursors or by using an integrated approach for controlling THM formation by implementing advanced water treatment technology. Extensive research is desirable in domains like THM minimization strategies which are easy to deploy, scalable, and cost-effective.
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Abbreviations
- AOP:
-
Advanced oxidation process
- BAC:
-
Biological activated carbon
- Br-THM:
-
Bromotrihalomethanes
- DBP:
-
Disinfection by-product
- DOC:
-
Dissolved organic carbon
- EU:
-
European Union
- EPA:
-
Environmental Protection Agency
- HAA:
-
Haloacetic acids
- HAN:
-
Haloacetonitrile
- HK:
-
Haloketone
- HOCl:
-
Hypochlorous acid
- HDI:
-
Human Development Index
- I-THM:
-
Iodinated trihalomethanes
- MW:
-
Molecular weight
- NOM:
-
Natural organic matter
- OCl− :
-
Hypochlorite ions
- PAF:
-
Population-attribution fraction
- THM:
-
Trihalomethane
- THMFP:
-
Trihalomethane formation potential
- TOC:
-
Total organic carbon
- UV:
-
Ultraviolet
- USEPA:
-
United States Environmental Protection Agency
- WHO:
-
World Health Organization
- WDN:
-
Water distribution network
- WTP:
-
Water treatment plant
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A. K, N. W, and A. R: detailed literature review, data collection and preparation of figures, tables and maps, original draft preparation.
P. L: supervision, reviewing and editing of manuscript.
A.M: conceptualization, methodology, data collection, supervision, investigation, reviewed the manuscript.
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Highlights
• Trihalomethanes (THMs) are strongly related to the chlorination of water.
• A relationship exists between THM formation and water’s physical and chemical properties.
• Guidelines on disinfection by-product are driving proactive measures to safeguard drinking water quality.
• Chlorination and chloramination in water treatment can produce harmful trihalomethanes when reacting with organics.
• Developed and developing countries have low and high THM concentrations, respectively.
• An integrated approach desirable to control THMs formation in water is discussed.
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Kothe, A., Wachasunder, N., Rodge, A. et al. Trihalomethanes in developed and developing countries. Environ Monit Assess 196, 17 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-12106-8
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-12106-8