Abstract
Phragmites growth in a marsh watershed due to increased salinity has been a crucial issue across the world. The objective of this study was to investigate the salinity movement in the ungagged Mentor Marsh of Ohio, USA, where the salinity had increased due to a number of potential sources causing a decline in the native vegetation and leading to the increased invasive phragmites growth. In this study, we conducted a detailed bathymetric survey and established several monitoring stations to record hourly environmental data in Mentor Marsh. Since Mentor Marsh has a complex hydrologic characteristic, which interacts with Lake Erie due to the backwater effect, a hydrodynamic model, Environmental Fluid Dynamic Code (EFDC +), was developed to simulate the western Mentor Marsh wetland’s salinity distribution. We evaluated the model performance by comparing water level, temperature, and salinity using statistical measures for a duration from December 2019 to March 2020. The model was calibrated using the measured time-series data of water temperatures, water levels, and water salinity from monitoring stations in the western basin. The model performance for salinity calibration (R2 = 0.82, RMSE = 0.041, and Pbias = − 1.05%) and validation (R2 = 0.84, RMSE = 0.066, and Pbias = − 2.05%) was good. In the next step, the calibrated model was utilized to investigate the salinity distributions under different inflow and lake level rise conditions. Our analysis suggested that during high-flow conditions, the advection of the saline water from Marsh Creek was vigorous in comparison to the diffusion of salinity mixing by tidal influence pushing the salinity towards Mentor Marsh and resulting in the lower salinity distribution within the model domain. Similarly, when the lake level rise occurred, the model predicted a significant decrease in the salinity of Mentor Marsh near Lake Erie. The average decrease of salinity from the salinity during the base run was − 45.8% near Lake Erie, − 29.7% at the junction of Mentor Marina and Mentor Marsh, − 21.2% in Mentor Marsh, and − 4.4% in Marsh Creek. The analysis further suggested that under high-flow conditions from Marsh Creek, the salinity moved towards Mentor Marsh, especially when lake level rise conditions were considered. This is mainly because the high water level of Lake Erie pushed March Creek towards Mentor Marsh. However, the salinity moved towards Lake Erie from Marsh Creek during low-flow conditions. Presumably, the phragmites growth in the western section seems to be due to the road salt used in winter for deicing purposes.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Data will be made available on reasonable request.
References
Andrews, S. W., Gross, E. S., & Hutton, P. H. (2017). Modeling salt intrusion in the San Francisco Estuary prior to anthropogenic influence. Continental Shelf Research, 146, 58–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2017.07.010
Arakawa, A., & Lamb, V. R. (1977). Computational design of the basic dynamical processes of the UCLA general circulation model. General circulation models of the atmosphere. https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Computational%20design%20of%20the%20basic%20dynamical%20processes%20of%20the%20UCLA%20general%20circulation%20model&publication_year=1977&author=A.%20Arakawa&author=V.R.%20Lamb
Arnold, J. G., Srinivasan, R., Muttiah, R. S., & Williams, J. R. (1998). Large area hydrologic modeling and assessment part I: Model development 1. JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 34(1), 73–89.
Austin, J. A. (2004). Estimating effective longitudinal dispersion in the Chesapeake Bay. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 60(3), 359–368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2004.01.012
Babbar-Sebens, M., Li, L., Song, K., & Xie, S. (2013). On the use of Landsat-5 TM satellite for assimilating water temperature observations in 3D hydrodynamic model of small inland reservoir in Midwestern US. 2013. https://doi.org/10.4236/ars.2013.23024
Bailey, P. C. E., Boon, P. I., Blinn, D. W., & Williams, W. D. (2006). Salinisation as an ecological perturbation to rivers, streams and wetlands of arid and semi-arid regions. Ecology of Desert Rivers, 280–314.
Baldwin, D. S., Rees, G. N., Mitchell, A. M., Watson, G., & Williams, J. (2006). The short-term effects of salinization on anaerobic nutrient cycling and microbial community structure in sediment from a freshwater wetland. Wetlands, 26(2), 455–464. https://doi.org/10.1672/0277-5212(2006)26[455:TSEOSO]2.0.CO;2
Barbier, E. B., Hacker, S. D., Kennedy, C., Koch, E. W., Stier, A. C., & Silliman, B. R. (2011). The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services. Ecological Monographs, 81(2), 169–193. https://doi.org/10.1890/10-1510.1
Bejarano, F. T., Padilla, J., Cuevas, C. R., & Cantero, R. (2015). (PDF) Hydrodynamics modelling utilizing the EFDC Explorer model for the sustainable management of Canal del Dique-Guajaro hydrosystem. Colombia., 168, 12. https://doi.org/10.2495/SD150371
Bielen, M., Hagley, C., & Hushak, L. (1996). & Michael Klepinger. Providing public access in coastal areas.
Blumberg, A. F., & Mellor, G. L. (2013). A description of a three-dimensional coastal ocean circulation model. In Three-dimensional coastal ocean models (pp. 1–16). American Geophysical Union (AGU). https://doi.org/10.1029/CO004p0001
Bolton, M. J. (2017). Annotated list of crane flies (Diptera: Tipulidae) from Mentor Marsh, Lake County. Ohio. The Great Lakes Entomologist, 21(2), 2.
Bond, W. J. (1998). Effluent irrigation—An environmental challenge for soil science. Soil Research, 36(4), 543–556. https://doi.org/10.1071/s98017
Boyer, J. S. (1982). Plant productivity and environment. Science, 218(4571), 443–448. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.218.4571.443
Broome, S. W., Seneca, E. D., & Woodhouse, W. W., Jr. (1988). Tidal salt marsh restoration. Aquatic Botany, 32(1–2), 1–22.
Costanza, R., & D#arge R., De Groot R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K., Naeem, S., O#neill R.v., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R. G., Sutton, P., & Van Den Belt M. . (1998). The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Ecological Economics, 25(1), 3–15.
Craig, P. M. (2016). User’s manual for EFDC_Explorer8.1: A pre/post processor for the Environmental Fluid Dynamics Code. https://eemodelingsystem.atlassian.net/wiki/spaces/EEREF/pages/2380407/Introduction
DeLaune, R. D., Smith, C. J., & Patrick, W. H. (1983). Relationship of marsh elevation, redox potential, and sulfide to Spartina alterniflora productivity 1. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 47(5), 930–935. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1983.03615995004700050018x
Devkota, J., & Fang, X. (2015). Numerical simulation of flow dynamics in a tidal river under various upstream hydrologic conditions. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 60(10), 1666–1689. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2014.947989
Dhungel, H., Sharma, S., Bhatt, R., & Dhakal, K. (2020). Monitoring ungauged watersheds for investigating the variability of flow and salinity to implement the possible removal of salt fill sites. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 192(12), 1–19.
Galatowitsch, S. M., Anderson, N. O., & Ascher, P. D. A. (1999). Invasiveness in wetland plants in temperate North America. The Society of Wetland Scientists, 19(4), 733–755.
Galperin, B., Kantha, L. H., Hassid, S., & Rosati, A. (1988). A quasi-equilibrium turbulent energy model for geophysical flows. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 45(1), 55–62. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1988)045%3c0055:AQETEM%3e2.0.CO;2
Ghassemi, F., Jakeman, A. J., & Nix, H. A. (1995). Salinisation of land and water resources: Human causes, extent, management and case studies. Salinisation of land and water resources: Human causes, extent, management and case studies. https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/19976767459
Gong, W., & Shen, J. (2011). The response of salt intrusion to changes in river discharge and tidal mixing during the dry season in the Modaomen Estuary. China. Continental Shelf Research, 31(7–8), 769–788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2011.01.011
Gong, W., Wang, Y., & Jia, J. (2012). The effect of interacting downstream branches on saltwater intrusion in the Modaomen Estuary, China. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 45, 223–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2011.11.001
Hamrick, J. M. (1996a). Overview of the EFDC EPA model.
Hamrick, J. M. (1996b). User’s manual for the environmental fluid dynamics computer code (No. 331).
Hamrick, J. M. (1986). Long-term dispersion in unsteady skewed free surface flow. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 23(6), 807–845. https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-7714(86)90075-2
Hamrick, J. M. (1992). A three-dimensional environmental fluid dynamics computer code: Theoretical and computational aspects (No. 317).
Hamrick, J. M., & Mills, W. B. (2000). Analysis of water temperatures in Conowingo Pond as influenced by the Peach Bottom atomic power plant thermal discharge. Environmental Science & Policy, 3, 197–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1462-9011(00)00053-8
Hart, B. T., Bailey, P., Edwards, R., Hortle, K., James, K., McMahon, A., Meredith, C., & Swadling, K. (1990). Effects of salinity on river, stream and wetland ecosystems in Victoria. Australia. Water Research, 24(9), 1103–1117.
Herbert, E. R., Boon, P., Burgin, A. J., Neubauer, S. C., Franklin, R. B., Ardón, M., Hopfensperger, K. N., Lamers, L. P. M., & Gell, P. (2015). A global perspective on wetland salinization: Ecological consequences of a growing threat to freshwater wetlands. Ecosphere, 6(10), art206. https://doi.org/10.1890/ES14-00534.1
Herdendorf, C. E. (1992). Lake Erie coastal wetlands: An overview. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 18(4), 533–551. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0380-1330(92)71321-5
Hsu, M.-H., Kuo, A. Y., Kuo, J. T., & Liu, W. C. (1998). Modeling estuarine hydrodynamics and salinity for wetland restoration. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A, 33(5), 891–921. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529809376768.
Huang, W. (2008). Numerical modeling of hydrodynamics and salinity transport in Little Manatee River. Journal of Coastal Research, 2008(10052), 13. https://doi.org/10.2112/1551-5036-52.sp1.13
Huckelbridge, K. H., Stacey, M. T., Glenn, E. P., & Dracup, J. A. (2010). An integrated model for evaluating hydrology, hydrodynamics, salinity and vegetation cover in a coastal desert wetland. Ecological Engineering, 36(7), 850–861. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2010.03.001
Jeong, S., Yeon, K., Hur, Y., & Oh, K. (2010). Salinity intrusion characteristics analysis using EFDC model in the downstream of Geum River. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 22(6), 934–939. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(09)60201-1
Ji, Zhen-Gang, et al. Three-dimensional modeling of hydrodynamic processes in the St. Lucie Estuary. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, vol. 73, no. 1–2, June 2007, pp. 188–200. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2006.12.016.
Jiang, H., Shen, Y., & Wang, S. (2009). Numerical study on salinity stratification in the Oujiang River Estuary. Journal of Hydrodynamics, 21(6), 835–842. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-6058(08)60220-6
Kim, J., Lee, T., & Seo, D. (2017). Algal bloom prediction of the lower Han River, Korea using the EFDC hydrodynamic and water quality model. Ecological Modelling, 366, 27–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2017.10.015
Lissner, J., Schierup, H.-H., Comı́n, F. A., & Astorga, V. (1999). Effect of climate on the salt tolerance of two Phragmites australis populations.: I. Growth, inorganic solutes, nitrogen relations and osmoregulation. Aquatic Botany, 64(3), 317–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3770(99)00060-1
Lymbery, A. J., Doupé, R. G., Bennett, T., & Starcevich, M. R. (2006). Efficacy of a subsurface-flow wetland using the estuarine sedge Juncus kraussii to treat effluent from inland saline aquaculture. Aquacultural Engineering, 34(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaeng.2005.03.004
MacKay, M., & Seglenieks, F. (2013). On the simulation of Laurentian Great Lakes water levels under projections of global climate change. Climatic Change, 117(1), 55–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-012-0560-z
Mahanty, M. M., Mohanty, P. K., Pattnaik, A. K., Panda, U. S., Pradhan, S., & Samal, R. N. (2016). Hydrodynamics, temperature/salinity variability and residence time in the Chilika lagoon during dry and wet period: Measurement and modeling. Continental Shelf Research, 125, 28–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2016.06.017
Mathis, T. J., Lee, S. T., Craig, P. M., Lam, N. T., Scandrett, K., Mishra, A., et al. (2019). Estuarine salinity intrusion and implications for aquatic habitat: A case study of the Lower St. Johns River Estuary, Florida. World Environmental and Water Resources Congress, 2019, 13–25. https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784482353.002.
Matson, T. O., Smith, D., & Skerlec, S. (2017). A survey of the turtles of Mentor Marsh, Lake County, Ohio.
Mellor, G. L., & Yamada, T. (1982). Development of a turbulence closure model for geophysical fluid problems. Reviews of Geophysics, 20(4), 851–875. https://doi.org/10.1029/RG020i004p00851
Novotny, E. V., Murphy, D., & Stefan, H. G. (2008). Increase of urban lake salinity by road deicing salt. Science of the Total Environment, 406(1), 131–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.07.037
Peyret, R., & Taylor, T. D. (2012). Computational methods for fluid flow. Springer Science & Business Media.
Qiao, H., Zhang, M., Jiang, H., Xu, T., & Zhang, H. (2018). Numerical study of hydrodynamic and salinity transport processes in the Pink Beach wetlands of the Liao River estuary. China. Ocean Science, 14(3), 437–451. https://doi.org/10.5194/os-14-437-2018
Shrestha, A., Sharma, S., McLean, C. E., Kelly, B. A., & Martin, S. C. (2017). Scenario analysis for assessing the impact of hydraulic fracturing on stream low flows using the SWAT model. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 62(5), 849–861.
Shrestha, S., & Sharma, S. (2021). Assessment of climate change impact on high flows in a watershed characterized by flood regulating reservoirs. International Journal of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, 14(1), 178–191.
Sun, D., Wan, Y., & Qiu, C. (2016). Three dimensional model evaluation of physical alterations of the Caloosahatchee River and Estuary: Impact on salt transport. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 173, 16–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2016.02.018
Tinh, N. X., Wang, J., Tanaka, H., & Ito, K. (2020). Response of salinity intrusion to the hydrodynamic conditions and river mouth morphological changes induced by the 2011 tsunami. Journal of Science and Technology in Civil Engineering (STCE) - NUCE, 14(2), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.31814/stce.nuce2020-14(2)-01
Vengosh, A. (2003). Salinization and saline environments. Treatise on Geochemistry, 9, 612. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/09051-4
Vinokur, M. (1974). Conservation equations of gasdynamics in curvilinear coordinate systems. Journal of Computational Physics, 14(2), 105–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9991(74)90008-4
Wang, Y., Jiang, Y., Liao, W., Gao, P., Huang, X., Wang, H., Song, X., & Lei, X. (2014). 3-D hydro-environmental simulation of Miyun reservoir. Beijin. Journal of Hydro-Environment Research, 8(4), 383–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jher.2013.09.002
Williams, W. D. (2001). Anthropogenic salinisation of inland waters. In J. M. Melack, R. Jellison, & D. B. Herbst (Eds.), Saline Lakes: Publications from the 7th International Conference on Salt Lakes, held in Death Valley National Park, California, U.S.A., September 1999 (pp. 329–337). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-2934-5_30
Wu, G., & Xu, Z. (2011). Prediction of algal blooming using EFDC model: Case study in the Daoxiang Lake. Ecological Modelling, 222(6), 1245–1252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2010.12.021
Xu, H., Lin, J., & Wang, D. (2008). Numerical study on salinity stratification in the Pamlico River Estuary. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 80(1), 74–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2008.07.014
Yadav, S., Irfan, M., Ahmad, A., & Hayat, S. (2011). Causes of salinity and plant manifestations to salt stress: A review. Journal of Environmental Biology, 32(5), 667.
Zedler, J. B., & Kercher, S. (2005). Wetland resources: Status, trends, ecosystem services, and restorability. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 30(1), 39–74. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.30.050504.144248
Zhou, J., Falconer, R. A., & Lin, B. (2014). Refinements to the EFDC model for predicting the hydro-environmental impacts of a barrage across the Severn Estuary. Renewable Energy, 62, 490–505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2013.08.012
Funding
Funding was received from an EPA Region 5 wetland grant to conduct this research.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Khadka, P., Sharma, S. & Mathis, T. Monitoring an ungagged coastal marsh to analyze the salinity interaction of the marsh with Lake Erie. Environ Monit Assess 193, 645 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09293-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09293-7