Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Wastewater reuse in the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC): the lost opportunity

  • Published:
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Reuse of treated wastewater is not only environmentally and financially sound, it is becoming indispensable for meeting the staggering water demand in certain regions, especially under conditions of alarming water scarcity. Reusing treated wastewater will help in reducing the pressure on expensive desalinated water production and depleting groundwater withdrawal, thereby reducing associated harmful environmental impacts. Reuse of wastewater in general and in the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) in particular has been a priority research area and has been in the media spotlight for some time, especially the use of tertiary quality water resources for agricultural purposes. However, reuse of treated wastewater is still in its primitive stage in terms of implementation in GCC. In addition, the overall volume of tertiary treated water that outflows unutilized to the sea is much greater than the volume reused. This paper provides a general review of and statistics on current practices of treatment of domestic wastewater in the GCC. The review highlights water resources, sanitation service coverage, wastewater treatment, effluent types, treated and reuse quantities, costs, and tariffs. The paper provides recommendations to improve wastewater treatment in the GCC to alleviate the stress on the scarce groundwater resources, provide a relatively inexpensive alternative to desalination, reduce the environmentally adverse impacts and externalities of desalination plants, and eliminate the discharge of untreated wastewater in coastal areas or terrestrial landfills.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abdalla, O., Kacimov, A., Chen, M., Al-Maktoumi, A., Al-Hosni, T., & Clark, I. (2017). Water resources in arid areas: the way forward. Cham: Springer International Publishing.

  • Abderrahman, W. A. (2000). Water demand management and Islamic water management principles: a case study. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 16(4), 465–473. https://doi.org/10.1080/713672529.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abderrahman, W. A. (2013). Wastewater treatment and reuse energy nexus in Saudi Arabia. Khobar: In Water Arabia, Miyahona.

  • Abdulraheem, M. (2010). Addressing the full ecological cost of energy production in the GCC. Paper presented at the Perspectives on energy and climate, Kuwait City, Kuwait, 18–20 January.

  • Abed, F. H., Nazzal, M. D., Attom, M. F., El-Emam, M. E., ElMessalami, N., & Al-Dabagh, S. (2018). The use of wastewater in construction of base course layers in pavement structures. In L. Mohammad (Ed.), Advancement in the design and performance of sustainable asphalt pavements: proceedings of the 1st GeoMEast International Congress and Exhibition, Egypt 2017 on sustainable civil infrastructures (pp. 31–37). Cham: Springer International Publishing.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Abou Seedo, K., Abido, M. S., Salih, A. A., & Abahussain, A. (2017). Assessing heavy metals accumulation in the leaves and sediments of urban mangroves (Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh.) in Bahrain. International Journal of Ecology, 8, doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/3978216.

  • Abu-Madi, M., & Al-Sa’ed, R. (2009). Towards sustainable wastewater reuse in the Middle East and North Africa. The Journal of Sustainable Development Columbia University Academic Commons. https://doi.org/10.7916/D8SQ902Q.

  • Abu-Rizaiza, O. (1999). Modification of the standards of wastewater reuse in Saudi Arabia. Water Research, 33(11), 2601–2608.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Abu Dhabi Environmetal Authority. (2013). About the optimal use of treated water in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. Abu Dhabi: Environment Agency - Abu Dhabi and Abu Dhabi Food Control Authority.

  • Adnan (2015, November 14). Sewage and barges are the most important sources of seawater contamination in the GCC (Arabic). Alkhaleej Newspaper, p. 1.

  • Alameeri A. (2014, November 10). Is the Gulf seabed repository of environmental pollution? (Arabic), Al Yaum newspaper, p. 1.

  • Alansari, M. S. (2013). The water demand management in the Kingdom of Bahrain. International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology (IJEAT), 2, 544–554.

  • Al Khizzy, K. A. (2009). Wastewater treatment in the state of Kuwait (in Arabic). Kuwait City: Ministry of public works, Kuwait.

  • Aleisa, E., Al-Ahmad, M., & Taha, A. M. (2011a). Design and management of a sewage pit through discrete-event simulation. Simulation, 87(11), 989–1001. https://doi.org/10.1177/0037549711398262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aleisa, E., Al-Shayji, K., & Al-Jarallah, R. (2011b) Residential wastewaters treatment system in Kuwait. In 2nd International Conference on Environmental Science and Technology ICEST, Singapore, February 26–28, 2011.

  • Aleisa, E., Al-Jadi, A., & Al-Sabah, S. (2015). A simulation-based assessment of a prospective sewer master plan. World Journal of Modelling and Simulation, 11(4), 272–281.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aleisa, E., Al-Refai, F., Al-Jadi, A., & Al-Naggar, A. A. (2012). Using discrete-event simulation to evaluate a new master plan for a sanitary infrastructure (pp. 1–10). Proceedings of the 2012 Winter Simulation Conference (WSC), Berlin. https://doi.org/10.1109/WSC.2012.6465126.

  • Al-Humoud, J. M., & Al-Ghusain, I. (2003). Household demand for water: a case study in Kuwait. Kuwait Journal of Science & Engineering, 30(1), 197–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alhumoud, J. M., Behbehani, H. S., & Abdullah, T. H. (2003). Wastewater reuse practices in Kuwait. Environmentalist, 23(2), 117–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aljareeda (2016, January 26th). Algae invade Kuwait shores.

  • Al-Jasser, A. O. (2011). Saudi wastewater reuse standards for agricultural irrigation: Riyadh treatment plants effluent compliance. Journal of King Saud University - Engineering Sciences, 23(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksues.2009.06.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alkhamisi, S. A., Ahmed, M., Al-Wardy, M., Prathapar, S. A., & Choudri, B. S. (2017). Effect of reclaimed water irrigation on yield attributes and chemical composition of wheat (Triticum aestivum), cowpea (Vigna sinensis), and maize (Zea mays) in rotation. Irrigation Science, 35(2), 87–98. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-016-0522-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Khamsi, S. A. (2013). The pilot project for the use of treated wastewater in a three-way feed production (Arabic). Tayebaat. Retrieved from http://tayebaat.wwwsr10.supercp.com/news/category-1.html/27.html.

  • Al-Mogren, A. (1995). Water resources in the GCC countries: natural resources (Arabic). Attaawun, 10(38), 13–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Noaimi, M. A. (1993). Evaluation of available water resources, present utilization, and consuming sectors’ future needs (in Arabic). In Evaluation of available water resources and utilization patterns (Vol. I). Bahrain: Bahrain Center for Studies and Research.

  • Al-Noaimi, M. A. (2005) Water use and management in Bahrain: an overview. Paper presented at the The Eleventh Regional Meeting of the Arab IHP National Committees, Damascus, Syria, 25–28 September 2005. http://noa.bh/niad/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Water-Use-and-Management-in-Bahrain.pdf.

  • al-Shalaan, A., Lowry, D., Fisher, R., Zazzeri, G., Alsarawi, M., & Nisbet, E. (2017). Methane emissions from Kuwait: long-term measurement, mobile plume mapping and isotopic characterisation. Paper presented at the EGU General Assembly, Vienna, Austria, 23–28 April 2017.

  • Alsulaimani G. (2015). Red tides lying on Kuwait Shores. Kuwait: Alrai Media.

  • Alwasat (2010, May 20th). 150 thousand cubic meters of treated water per day and the award of the tender « Tubli » By next September, p. 1.

  • Alwasat. (2014, May 20th) Secondary sewage treatment amounts reached 121 million cubic meters (Arabic), p. 1.

  • Al-Zubari, W. (2014). The costs of municipal water supply in Bahrain. Retrieved from London: https://www.chathamhouse.org/publication/costs-municipal-water-supply-bahrain.

  • Al-Zubari, W. K. (1998). Towards the establishment of a total water cycle management and re-use program in the GCC countries. Desalination, 120(1–2), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0011-9164(98)00196-9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baawain, M., Al-Omairi, A., & Choudri, B. S. (2014). Characterization of domestic wastewater treatment in Oman from three different regions and current implications of treated effluents. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 186(5), 2701–2716. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-013-3572-x.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chowdhury, R. K., & Rajput, M. A. (2017). Will greywater reuse really affect the sewer flow? Experience of a residential complex in Al Ain, UAE. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, 17(1), 246–258. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2016.131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corcoran, E., Nelleman, C., Baker, E., Bos, R., Osborn, D., & Savelli, H. (Eds). (2010). Sick water? The central role of wastewater management in sustainable development (1st ed). Birkeland Trykkeri AS, Norway: UNEP, UN-HABITAT, GRID-Arendal. https://gridarendalwebsite.s3.amazonaws.com/production/documents/:s_document/208/original/SickWater_screen.pdf?1486721310.

  • Darwish, M. A., Al-Najem, N. M., & Lior, N. (2009). Towards sustainable seawater desalting in the Gulf area. Desalination, 235(1–3), 58–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2008.07.005.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Enezi, G., Hamoda, M. F., & Fawzi, N. (2004). Heavy metals content of municipal wastewater and sludges in Kuwait. Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part a-Environmental Science and Engineering & Toxic and Hazardous Substance Control, A39(2), 397–407.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falkenmark, M. (1989). The massive water scarcity now threatening africa: why isn’t it being addressed? Ambio, 18(2), 112–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO(2009a) FAO Water Report 34. http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions. Accessed 2015.

  • FAO (2009b) Qatar. http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/qat/QAT-CP_ara.pdf. Accessed 2015.

  • FAO (2015). International agencies calling for urgent action to avoid depletion of groundwater irreversibly (Arabic). http://www.fao.org/news/story/ar/item/283094/icode/.

  • Fattouh, B., & Mahadeva, L. (2014). Price reform in Kuwait’s electricity and water sector—assessing the net benefits in the presence of congestion.

    Google Scholar 

  • GCC Secretariat General (2015). Development of a unified water sector strategy for Gulf Cooperation Council of Arab Member States (DRAFT) (English). Riyadh: King Abdullah Institute for Research and Consulting Studies.

  • Ghobrial, F. H. (1993). Performance assessment of 3 waste-water treatment plants producing effluents for irrigation. Water Science and Technology, 27(9), 139–146.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hamoda, M. F. (1996). Assessment of wastewater treatment and water reuse practices in the gulf countries. Kuwait, Kuwait University: pp 1–14.

  • Jaffar Abdul Khaliq, S., Ahmed, M., Al-Wardy, M., Al-Busaidi, A., & Choudri, B. S. (2017). Wastewater and sludge management and research in Oman: an overview. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 67(3), 267–278. https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2016.1243595.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jiménez, B., & Asano, T. (Eds). (2008). Water reuse: an international survey of current practice, issues and needs (vol. 20). London: IWA publishing.

  • Jumat, M., Hasan, N., Subramanian, P., Heberling, C., Colwell, R., & Hong, P.-Y. (2017). Membrane bioreactor-based wastewater treatment plant in Saudi Arabia: reduction of viral diversity, load, and infectious capacity. Water, 9(7), 534.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kajenthira, A., Siddiqi, A., & Anadon, L. D. (2012). A new case for promoting wastewater reuse in Saudi Arabia: bringing energy into the water equation. Journal of Environmental Management, 102, 184–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.09.023.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Karam, M. K. (2010). Utilization of treated effluent in the state of Kuwait (pp. 1–51). Retrieved from http://www.siww.com.sg/pdf/Kuwait.pdf.

  • Khan, M. Z., Nizami, A. S., Rehan, M., Ouda, O. K. M., Sultana, S., Ismail, I. M., et al. (2017). Microbial electrolysis cells for hydrogen production and urban wastewater treatment: a case study of Saudi Arabia. Applied Energy, 185, 410–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.11.005.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kharusi IbSA (2016). Red tides invade the coast of Oman (Arabic). Muscat: Saif bin Saud Mahrooqi.

  • Mee, L. D. (2000). How to save the Black Sea, your guide to the Black Sea Strategic Action Plan Eutrophication in the Black Sea ecosystem management (pp. 32): Worldbank.org. Retrieved from http://wedocs.unep.org//handle/20.500.11822/15156.

  • MPW, M. o. P. W. (2014, November 14). Plan to exploit 100 million cubic meters of treated water (Arabic). Alkhaleej Newspaper, p. 1.

  • Najati, B. (2015). Mawlawi: Qatar is moving to expand the the uses of treated wastewater (Arabic). Qatar: Bawabat Alsharq. Retrieved from http://www.al-sharq.com/news/details/381969.

  • Lidstone, D. (2009). Kuwait relieving pressure on the wastewater system. Middle East Business Intelligence (MEED), (Gulf Wastewater). Retrieved from https://www.meed.com/sectors/power-andwater/wastewater/kuwait-relieving-pressure-on-the-wastewater-system/3002551.article.

  • Qurashiya, Aisha Hasan. (2015). Water sources in Oman (Arabic). In acwua.org, 47. Oman: Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources (MRMWR).

  • Prescott-Allen, R. (2011). Global environmental monitoring system/water quality monitoring system, with data for an additional 29 countries. Washington, DC: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). http://www.ec.gc.ca/inrenwri/.

  • Purnama, A., Al-Barwani, H. H., & Smith, R. (2005). Calculating the environmental cost of seawater desalination in the Arabian marginal seas. Desalination, 185(1–3), 79–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2005.03.072.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Qatar News Agency (2015, November 3rd) A workshop on successful experiences in the sewage treatment GCC (Arabic), p. 1.

  • Rothenberger S (2010) Wastewater reuse in Arab countries: comparative compilation of information and reference list vol. Amman, Jordan. http://www.fao.org.Foodandagricultureorganization.

  • Roudi-Fahimi, F., Creel, L., & Souza, R.-M. D. (2002). Finding the balance: population and water scarcity in the Middle East and North Africa. In MENA Policy Brief, edited by Population Reference Bureau (Prb). Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau (PRB).

  • SAOC (2007). Wastewater treatment and handling. Utilities. Dhofar, Oman: Salalah Sanitary drainage Services Co.

  • Secretariat General of the Gulf Cooperation Council. (2015). The development of the water sector strategy unified GCC’s Arab member states (Arabic). Riyadh: King Abdullah Research and Consulting Studies Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2010) Water use, by sector and by source. United Nations. http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/index.stm.

  • Todorova, V. (2014). Plans to reuse 100% of Abu Dhabi’s waste water in four years. The National,

    Google Scholar 

  • UAE Ministry of Climate Change and Environment (2014). Background of red tide phenomenon in the GCC. http://www.moccae.gov.ae/en/knowledge-and-statistics/red-tide/background-of-red-tide-phenomenon.aspx. Accessed 3rd Aug 2016.

  • UNEP (2013). Case 6: Reuse of wastewater in Bahrain. In S. Halls (Ed.), Sourcebook of alternative technologies for freshwater augmentation in West Asia (8f ed., Vol. 8). Osaka, Shiga: Division of Technology, Industry and Economics.

  • Verdier, F. (2011). Part II Desalination Using Renewable Energy. In F. Verdier (Ed.), MENA Regional Water Outlook (vol. 2, pp. 529). Stuttgart, Germany: MENA.

  • Word Bank (2011). Water reuse in the Arab world: from principle to practice. Dubai, UAE: WorldBank.org.

  • World bank (2005a) A report on the assessment of the water sector in the countries of the Cooperation Council for the Arab Gulf States (Arabic). http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMNAREGTOPWATRES/Resources/GCC-AR-AGFUND-UpdComplete.pdf.

  • World Bank (2005b). A water sector assessment report on the countries of the cooperation council of the Arab States of the Gulf (M. E. a. N. A. Region, Trans.). Other Rural Study (vol. 1, pp. 102). Washington, DC: Water, Environment, Social and Rural Development Department Middle East and North Africa Region.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Industrial and Management Systems Engineering Department, College of Engineering and Petroleum, Kuwait University, Khaldia Bldg. # 8KH, 3rd Floor, P.O. Box 5969, 13060, Safat, Kuwait

    Esra Aleisa

  2. Water Resources Management Program, College of Graduate Studies, Arabian Gulf University, P.O. Box 26671, Manama, Kingdom of Bahrain

    Waleed Al-Zubari

Authors
  1. Esra Aleisa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Waleed Al-Zubari
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Esra Aleisa.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Aleisa, E., Al-Zubari, W. Wastewater reuse in the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC): the lost opportunity. Environ Monit Assess 189, 553 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-6269-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-6269-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation