Abstract
Biochar-supported metal oxide nanocomposites as functional materials could help to improve the production and stress tolerance of plants by enhancing the physicochemical properties of biochar. This experiment was carried out to assess the effects of unmodified biochar (30 g kg−1 soil) and biochar-based nanocomposites (BNCs) of iron (30 g BNC-FeO kg−1 soil), zinc (30 g BNC-ZnO kg−1 soil), and a combined form (15 g BNC-FeO + 15 g BNC-ZnO kg−1 soil) on dill (Anethum graveolens L.) plants under various salinity levels (non-saline, 6 and 12 dS m−1). The biochar-related treatments reduced sodium content of the plants, leading to a decline in osmolytes, antioxidant enzymes activities, reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid peroxidation, NADP reduction, abscisic acid, jasmonic acid, and salicylic acid in dill leaf tissues. The combined form of BNCs reduced sodium content of leaf tissue by about 22% and 26% under 6 and 12 dS m−1 salinities, respectively. In contrast, addition of biochar, particularly biochar-based nanocomposites to the saline soil, enhanced potassium, iron, and zinc contents of leaf tissue, photosynthetic pigments, leaf water content, oxygen evolution rate, hill reaction and ATPase activities, endogenous indole-3-acetic acid, plant organs biomass, and consequently essential oil yield of plant organs. The combined form of BNCs in comparison with unmodified biochar improved vegetative, inflorescence, and seed biomass under 12 dS m−1 salinity by about 33%, 25%, and 6%, respectively. These findings revealed that BNCs with novel structure can potentially enhance salt tolerance, plant biomass, and essential oil yield of different organs in salt-stressed dill plants through decreasing leaf sodium content and ROS generation and increasing nutrient availability, water status, and photosynthetic pigments.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of data and materials
The necessary information is available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Abid, M., Zhang, Y. J., Li, Zh., Bai, D. F., Zhong, Y. P., & Fang, J. B. (2020). Effect of salt stress on growth, physiological and biochemical characters of four kiwifruit genotypes. Scientia Horticulturae, 271, 109473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2020.109473
Ahammed, G. J., & Yu, J.Q. (2016). Plant hormones under challenging environmental factors. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-7758-2
Anjum, S. A., Wang, L., Farooq, M., Khan, I., & Xue, L. (2011). Methyl jasmonate-induced alteration in lipid peroxidation, antioxidative defence system and yield in soybean under drought. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science., 197, 296–301. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-037X.2011.00468.x
Arnon, D. I. (1949). Copper enzymes in isolated chloroplasts Polyphenoloxidase in Beta vulgaris. Plant Physiology, 24, 1–9.
Barr, H. D., & Weatherley, P. E. (1962). A re-examination of the relative turgidity technique for estimating water deficit in leaves. Australian Journal of Biological Sciences, 15, 413–428. https://doi.org/10.1071/BI9620413
Bates, L. S., Waldren, R. P., & Teare, I. D. (1973). Rapid determination of free proline for water-stress studies. Plant and Soil, 39, 205–207. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00018060
Behzadi Rad, P., Roozban, M. R., Karimi, S., Ghahremani, R., & Vahdati, K. (2021). Osmolyte accumulation and sodium compartmentation has a key role in salinity tolerance of pistachios rootstocks. Agriculture, 11, 708. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11080708
Bekmirzaev, G., Ouddane, B., Beltrao, J., & Fujii, Y. (2020). The impact of salt concentration on the mineral nutrition of Tetragonia tetragonioides. Agriculture, 10, 238. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10060238
Bennett, W. F. (1993). Plant nutrient utilization and diagnostic plant symptoms. In W. F. Bennett (Ed.), Nutrient deficiencies and toxicities in crop plants (pp. 1–7). St. Paul, MN: The APS Press, The American Phytopathological Society.
Bottrill, D. E., Possingham, J. V., & Kriedemann, P. E. (1970). The effect of nutrient deficiencies on photosynthesis and respiration in spinach. Plant and Soil, 32, 424–438. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01372881
Bradford, M. M. (1976). A rapid and sensitive method for the quantitation of microgram quantities of protein utilizing the principle of protein-dye binding. Analytical Biochemistry, 72, 248–254. https://doi.org/10.1006/abio.1976.9999
Calamai, A., Palchetti, E., Masoni, A., Marini, L., Chiaramonti, D., Dibari, C., & Brilli, L. (2019). The influence of biochar and solid digestate on rose-scented Geranium (Pelargonium graveolens L’Hér.) productivity and essential oil quality. Agronomy, 9, 260. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9050260
Castillo-González, J., Ojeda-Barrios, D., Hernández-Rodríguez, A., Cecilia-González-Franco, A., Robles-Hernández, L., & Rogelio-López-Ochoa, G. (2018). Zinc metalloenzymes in plants. Interciencia, 43, 242–248.
Chandra, S., Pradhan, S., Mitra, S., Patra, P., Bhattacharya, A., Pramanik, P., & Goswami, A. (2014). High throughput electron transfer from carbon dots to chloroplast: A rationale of enhanced photosynthesis. Nanoscale, 6, 3647. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3NR06079A
Chapman, H. D., & Pratt, P. F. (1978). Methods of analysis for soils, plants and waters. Oakland: University of California Division of Agricultural Sciences Priced Publication.
Chausali, N., Saxena, J., & Prasad, R. (2021). Nanobiochar and biochar based nanocomposites: Advances and applications. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 5, 100191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2021.100191
Chrysargyris, A., Michailidi, E., & Tzortzakis, N. (2018). Physiological and biochemical responses of Lavandula angustifolia to salinity under mineral foliar application. Frontiers in Plant Science, 9, 489. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2018.00489
Dahlawi, S., Naeem, A., Rengel, Z., & Naidu, R. (2018). Biochar application for the remediation of salt-affected soils: Challenges and opportunities. Science of the Total Environment, 625, 320–335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.257
Dehghani Bidgoli, R., Azarnezhad, N., Akhbari, M., & Ghorbani, M. (2019). Salinity stress and PGPR effects on essential oil changes in Rosmarinus officinalis L. Agriculture and Food Security, 8, 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-018-0246-5
Dhindsa, R. H., Plumb-Dhindsa, R., & Thorpe, T. A. (1981). Leaf senescence correlated with increased level of membrane permeability, lipid peroxidation and decreased level of SOD and CAT. Journal of Experimental Botany, 32, 93–101. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/32.1.93
Dubois, M., Gilles, K. A., Hamilton, J. K., Rebers, P. A., & Smith, F. (1956). Colorimetric method for determination of sugars and related substances. Analytical Chemistry, 28, 350–356. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac60111a017
Fageria, N. K. (2016). The use of nutrients in crop plants (p. 448). CRC Press.
Farhangi-Abriz, S., & Ghassemi-Golezani, K. (2021). Changes in soil properties and salt tolerance of safflower in response to biochar-based metal oxide nanocomposites of magnesium and manganese. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 211, 111904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.111904
Farsaraei, S., Moghaddam, M., & Ghasemi Pirbalouti, A. (2020). Changes in growth and essential oil composition of sweet basil in response of salinity stress and super absorbents application. Scientia Horticulturae, 271, 109465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2020.109465
Ghassemi-Golezani, K., & Abdoli, S. (2021). Improving ATPase and PPase activities, nutrient uptake and growth of salt stressed ajowan plants by salicylic acid and iron-oxide nanoparticles. Plant Cell Reports, 40, 559–573. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00299-020-02652-7
Ghassemi-Golezani, K., & Farhadi, N. (2021). The Efficacy of salicylic acid levels on photosynthetic activity, growth, and essential oil content and composition of pennyroyal plants under salt stress. The Journal of Plant Growth Regulation. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00344-021-10515-y
Ghassemi-Golezani, K., & Farhangi-Abriz, S. (2021). Biochar-based metal oxide nanocomposites of magnesium and manganese improved root development and productivity of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) under salt stress. Rhizosphere, 19, 100416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rhisph.2021.100416
Ghassemi-Golezani, K., Farhangi-Abriz, S., & Abdoli, S. (2020). How can biochar-based metal oxide nanocomposites counter salt toxicity in plants? Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 43, 2007–2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00780-3
Ghassemi-Golezani, K., & Nikpour-Rashidabad, N. (2017). Seed pretreatment and salt tolerance of dill: Osmolyte accumulation, antioxidant enzymes activities and essence production. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology, 12, 30–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcab.2017.08.014
Ghassemi-Golezani, K., & Solhi-Khajemarjan, R. (2021). Changes in growth and essential oil content of dill (Anethum graveolens) organs under drought stress in response to salicylic acid. Journal of Plant Physiology and Breeding, 11, 33–47. https://doi.org/10.22034/JPPB.2021.13717
Gong, D. H., Wang, G. Z., Si, W. T., Zhou, Y., Liu, Z., & Jia, J. (2018). Effects of salt stress on photosynthetic pigments and activity of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase in Kalidium foliatum. Russian Journal of Plant Physiology, 65, 98–103. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1021443718010144
Grieve, C. M., & Grattan, S. R. (1983). Rapid assay for determination of water soluble quaternary ammonium compounds. Plant and Soil, 70, 303–307. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02374789
Gueta-Dahan, Y., Yaniv, Z., Zilinskas, B. A., & Ben-Hayyim, G. (1997). Salt and oxidative stress: Similar and specific responses and their relation to salt tolerance in Citrus. Planta, 203, 460–469. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004250050215
Hassanpouraghdam, M. B., Mehrabani, L. V., & Tzortzakis, N. (2019). Foliar application of nano-zinc and iron affects physiological attributes of Rosmarinus officinalis and quietens NaCl salinity depression. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 20, 335–345. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42729-019-00111-1
Hendershot, W. H., Lalande, H., & Duquette, M. (1993). Ion exchange and exchangeable cations. Soil Sampling and Methods of Analysis, 19, 167–176.
Hou, H. J. M. (2011). Manganese-based materials inspired by photosynthesis for water-splitting. Materials (Basel), 4, 1693–1704. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma4101693
Jabborova, D., Annapurna, K., Paul, S., Kumar, S., Saad, H. A., Desouky, S., Ibrahim, M. F. M., & Elkelish, A. (2021). Beneficial features of biochar and arbuscular mycorrhiza for improving spinach plant growth, root morphological traits, physiological properties, and soil enzymatic activities. Journal of Fungi, 7, 571. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7070571
Jeshni, M. G., Mousavinik, M., Khammari, I., & Rahimi, M. (2015). The changes of yield and essential oil components of German Chamomile (Matricaria recutita L.) under application of phosphorus and zinc fertilizers and drought stress conditions. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences, 16, 60–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssas.2015.02.003
Kizito, S., Luo, H., Lu, J., Bah, H., Dong, R., & Wu, S. (2019). Role of nutrient-enriched biochar as a soil amendment during maize growth: Exploring practical alternatives to recycle agricultural residuals and to reduce chemical fertilizer demand. Sustainability, 11, 3211. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11113211
Kobayashi, T., & Nishizawa, N. K. (2012). Iron uptake, translocation, and regulation in higher plants. Annual Review of Plant Biology, 63, 131–152. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-arplant-042811-105522
Lateef, A., Nazir, R., Jamil, N., Alam, S., Shah, R., Khan, M. N., & Saleem, M. (2019). Synthesis and characterization of environmental friendly corncob biochar based nano-composite- A potential slow release nano-fertilizer for sustainable agriculture. Environmental Nanotechnology, Monitoring & Management, 11, 100212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enmm.2019.100212
Lu, X., Sun, D., Zhang, X., Hu, H., Kong, L., Rookes, J. E., Xie, J., & Cahill, D. M. (2020). Stimulation of photosynthesis and enhancement of growth and yield in Arabidopsis thaliana treated with amine-functionalized mesoporous silica nanoparticles. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, 156, 566–577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2020.09.036
Maehly, A. C., & Chance, B. (1959). The assay of catalase and peroxidase. In D. Glick (Ed.), Methods of biochemical analysis (Vol. 1, pp. 357–425). Interscience Publishers.
Mary, S. G., Sugumaran, P., Niveditha, S., Ramalakshmi, B., Ravichandran, P., & Seshadri, S. (2016). Production, characterization and evaluation of biochar from pod (Pisum sativum), leaf (Brassica oleracea) and peel (Citrus sinensis) wastes. International Journal of Recycling of Organic Waste in Agriculture, 5, 4–53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40093-016-0116-8
Miller, G. W., Huang, I. J., Welkie, G. W., & Pushnik, J. C. (1995). Function of iron in plants with special emphasis on chloroplasts and photosynthetic activity. In: Abadía J. (eds) Iron nutrition in soils and plants, vol. 59 (pp. 19–28). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-0503-3-4
Moradi, S., & Jahanban, L. (2018). Salinity stress alleviation by Zn as soil and foliar applications in two rice cultivars. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 49, 2517–2526. https://doi.org/10.1080/00103624.2018.1526941
Mukhopadhyay, M., Das, A., Subba, P., Bantawa, P., Sarkar, B., Ghosh, P. D., & Mondal, T. K. (2013). Structural, physiological and biochemical profiling of tea plants under zinc stress. Biologia Plantarum, 57, 474–480. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10535-012-0300-2
Neffati, M., Sriti, J., Hamdaoui, G., Kchouk, M. E., & Marzouk, B. (2011). Salinity impact on fruit yield, essential oil composition and antioxidant activities of Coriandrum sativum fruit extracts. Food Chemistry, 124, 221–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.06.022
Nogues, S., & Baker, N. R. (2000). Effects of drought on photosynthesis in Mediterranean plants growth under enhanced UV-B radiation. Journal of Experimental Botany, 51, 1309–1317. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/51.348.1309
Ohkama-Ohtsu, N., & Wasaki, J. (2010). Recent progress in plant nutrition research: Cross-talk between nutrients, plant physiology and soil microorganisms. Plant and Cell Physiology, 51, 1255–1264. https://doi.org/10.1093/pcp/pcq095
Pace, B. (2018). Mineral enriched biochars for soil nutrient retention and enhanced microbial activity. Ph.D. Thesis, Materials Science and Engineering, Faculty of Science, UNSW, p. 282.
Park, J. H., Ok, Y. S., Kim, S. H., Cho, J. S., Heo, J., Delaune, R. D., & Seo, D. C. (2015). Competitive adsorption of heavy metals onto sesame straw biochar in aqueous solutions. Chemosphere, 142, 77–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.05.093
Pradhan, S., Patra, P., Das, S., Chandra, S., Mitra, S., Dey, K. K., Akbar, S., Palit, P., & Goswami, A. (2013). Photochemical modulation of biosafe manganese nanoparticles on Vigna radiata: A detailed molecular, biochemical, and biophysical study. Environmental Science and Technology, 47, 13122–13131. https://doi.org/10.1021/es402659t
Roosta, H. R., Estaji, A., & Niknam, F. (2018). Effect of iron, zinc and manganese shortage-induced change on photosynthetic pigments, some osmoregulators and chlorophyll fluorescence parameters in lettuce. Photosynthetica, 56, 606–615. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11099-017-0696-1
Rostamian, R., Heidarpour, M., Mousavi, S. F., & Afyuni, M. (2015). Characterization and sodium sorption capacity of biochar and activated carbon prepared from rice husk. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology, 17, 1057–1069.
Ryu, H., & Cho, Y. G. (2015). Plant hormones in salt stress tolerance. Journal of Plant Biology, 58, 147–155. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12374-015-0103-z
Sarmoum, R., Haid, S., Biche, M., Djazouli, Z., Zebib, B., & Merah, O. (2019). Effect of salinity and water stress on the essential oil components of Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.). Agronomy, 9, 214. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9050214
Shabala, S. (Ed.). (2017). Plant stress physiology. Cabi.
Sharma, A., Shahzad, B., Kumar, V., Kohli, S. K., Sidhu, G. P. S., Bali, A., Handa, N., Kapoor, D., Bhardwaj, R., & Zheng, B. (2019). Phytohormones regulate accumulation of osmolytes under abiotic stress. Biomolecules, 9, 285. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom9070285
Silva, F. A. S., Rojas, E. G., & Campos, M. F. (2015). Particle size analysis of Fe3O4 nanoparticles coated by polyethyleneglycol. Materials Science Forum, 820, 373–377. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.820.373
Song, Z., Lian, F., Yu, Z., Zhu, L., Xing, B., & Qiu, W. (2014). Synthesis and characterization of a novel MnOx-loaded biochar and its adsorption properties for Cu2+ in aqueous solution. Chemical Engineering Journal, 242, 36–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2013.12.061
Sun, D., Hussain, H. I., Yi, Z., Rookes, J. E., Kong, L., & Cahill, D. M. (2016). Mesoporous silica nanoparticles enhance seedling growth and photosynthesis in wheat and lupin. Chemosphere, 152, 81–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.02.096
Tan, X.-f, Liu, Y.-g, Gu, Y.-l, Xu, Y., Zeng, G.-m, Hu, X.-j, Liu, S.-b, Wang, X., Liu, S.-m, & Li, J. (2016). Biochar-based nano-composites for the decontamination of wastewater: A review. Bioresource Technology, 212, 318–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2016.04.093
Thomas, S. C., Frye, S., Gale, N., Garmon, M., Launchbury, R., Machado, N., Melamed, S., Murray, J., Petroff, A., & Winsborough, C. (2013). Biochar mitigates negative effects of salt additions on two herbaceous plant species. Journal of Environmental Management, 129, 62–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.05.057
Tolay, I. (2021). The impact of different Zinc (Zn) levels on growth and nutrient uptake of Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) grown under salinity stress. PLOS ONE, 16, 0246493. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246493
Tripathy, B. C., & Mohanty, P. (1980). Zinc-inhibited electron transport of photosynthesis in isolated barley chloroplasts. Plant Physiology, 66, 1174–1178. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.66.6.1174
Tsamaidi, D., Daferera, D., Karapanos, I. C., & Passam, H. C. (2017). The effect of water deficiency and salinity on the growth and quality of fresh dill (Anethum graveolens L.) during autumn and spring cultivation. International Journal of Plant Production, 11, 33–46. https://doi.org/10.22069/IJPP.2017.33088
Velikova, V., Yordanov, I., & Edreva, A. (2000). Oxidative stress and some antioxidant systems in acid rain-treated bean plants: Protective role of exogenous polyamines. Plant Science, 151, 59–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-9452(99)00197-1
Wang, B., Gao, B., & Fang, J. (2017a). Recent advances in engineered biochar productions and applications. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 47, 2158–2207. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2017.1418580
Wang, D., Jiang, P., Zhang, H., & Yuan, W. (2020). Biochar production and applications in agro and forestry systems: A review. Science of the Total Environment, 723, 137775. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137775
Wang, P., Duan, W., Takabayashi, A., Endo, T., Shikanai, T., Ye, J.-Y., & Mi, H. (2006). Chloroplastic NAD (P) H dehydrogenase in tobacco leaves functions in alleviation of oxidative damage caused by temperature stress. Plant Physiology, 141, 465–474. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.105.070490
Wang, P., Tang, L., Wei, X., Zeng, G., Zhou, Y., Deng, Y., Wang, J., Xie, Z., & Fang, W. (2017b). Synthesis and application of iron and zinc doped biochar for removal of p-nitrophenol in wastewater and assessment of the influence of co-existed Pb(II). Applied Surface Science, 392, 391–401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2016.09.052
Wang, S. Y., & Jiao, H. (2000). Scavenging capacity of berry crops on superoxide radicals, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radicals, and singlet oxygen. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 48, 5677–5684. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf000766i
Wang, S., Xu, L., Li, G., Chen, P., Xia, K., & Zhou, X. (2002). An ELISA for the determination of salicylic acid in plants using a monoclonal antibody. Plant Science, 162, 529–535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.07.148
Weng, X. Y., Zheng, C. J., Xu, H. X., & Sun, J. Y. (2007). Characteristics of photosynthesis and functions of the water-water cycle in rice (Oryza sativa) leaves in response to potassium deficiency. Physiologia Plantarum, 131, 614–621. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3054.2007.00978.x
White, A. J. (2010). Development of an activated carbon from anaerobic digestion by-product to remove hydrogen sulfide from biogas. University of Toronto.
Yadegari, M. (2017). Effects of Zn, Fe, Mn and Cu foliar application on essential oils and morpho-physiological traits of Lemon Balm (Melissa Officinalis L.). Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants, 20, 485–495. https://doi.org/10.1080/0972060X.2017.1325010
Yang, X., Kang, K., Qiu, L., Zhao, L., & Sun, R. (2020). Effects of carbonization conditions on the yield and fixed carbon content of biochar from pruned apple tree branches. Renewable Energy, 146, 1691–1699. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.07.148
Zhang, H., Voroney, R. P., Price, G. W., & White, A. J. (2017). Sulfur-enriched biochar as a potential soil amendment and fertilizer. Soil Research, 55, 93–99. https://doi.org/10.1071/SR15256
Zhang, M., Gao, B., Yao, Y., Xue, Y., & Inyang, M. (2012). Synthesis of porous MgO-biochar nanocomposites for removal of phosphate and nitrate from aqueous solutions. Chemical Engineering Journal, 210, 26–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2012.08.052
Zhang, Y., Ding, J., Wang, H., Su, L., & Zhao, C. (2020). Biochar addition alleviate the negative effects of drought and salinity stress on soybean productivity and water use efficiency. BMC Plant Biology, 20, 288. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-020-02493-2
Zhou, Y., Tang, N., Huang, L., Zhao, Y., Tang, X., & Wang, K. (2018). Effects of salt stress on plant growth, antioxidant capacity, glandular trichome density, and volatile exudates of Schizonepeta tenuifolia Briq. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 19, 252. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19010252
Zhu, X. Y., Chen, G. C., & Zhang, C. L. (2001). Photosynthetic electron transport, photophosphorylation, and antioxidants in two ecotypes of reed (Phragmites communis Trin.) from different habitats. Photosynthetica, 39, 183–189. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013766722604
Acknowledgements
We appreciate the Iran National Science Foundation and University of Tabriz for the support of this work.
Funding
This work was financially supported by the Iran National Science Foundation (Grant number: 98025157).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
KG-G was involved in supervision, experimental design, and writing. SR helped in experimental work, data analysis, and writing.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors have no competing interests that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Ghassemi-Golezani, K., Rahimzadeh, S. Biochar-based nutritional nanocomposites: a superior treatment for alleviating salt toxicity and improving physiological performance of dill (Anethum graveolens). Environ Geochem Health 45, 3089–3111 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-022-01397-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-022-01397-4