Abstract
An aqueous dispersion of 2,2,6,6,-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl radical (TEMPO)-oxidized cellulose nanofibrils (TEMPO-CNFs) was mixed with diethylene glycol (DEG) and dodecyltrimethylammonium chloride (DTMACl) with or without silane coupling agents. The mixture was heated at 40 °C for 1 d to prepare an oven-dried TEMPO-CNF/DEG/DTMACl, which was added to maleic anhydride-modified polypropylene (MA-PP) and kneaded at 165‒175 °C with high shear forces to prepare TEMPO-CNF/MA-PP master batches. Various amounts of TEMPO-CNF/MA-PP master batch pieces were mixed with PP to prepare TEMPO-CNF/MA-PP/PP composite sheets. The yield stress and storage modulus at 25 °C of the composite sheets increased almost linearly with an increase in TEMPO-CNF content. However, the elongation at break decreased clearly with TEMPO-CNF content because of partial formation of TEMPO-CNF aggregates in the composites. The presence of TEMPO-CNFs restricted flow behavior of the MA-PP/PP components above 160 °C, although the crystallinities and melting behavior of MA-PP/PP in the composite sheets at ~ 160 °C were unchanged. The apparent aspect ratios of TEMPO-CNF components in the composite sheets were 5‒13 by partial aggregation of TEMPO-CNFs in the PP matrix, although the aspect ratio of the original TEMPO-CNFs dispersed in water was ~ 183. The aggregation behavior of TEMPO-CNFs in the PP matrix may have resulted in brittle tensile properties of the composite sheets. The TEMPO-CNF-containing PP sheets have better printability and adhesion performance between sheets using glues. These results indicate that the oven-dried TEMPO-CNFs can be used as fillers for improvement of mechanical, thermal, and printing properties of recycled and low-quality PP and for quantitative expansion of recycled PP.
Graphical abstract
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Agarwal J, Mohanty S, Nayak SK (2021) Influence of cellulose nanocrystal/sisal fiber on the mechanical, thermal, and morphological performance of polypropylene hybrid composites. Polym Bull 78:1609–1635. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-020-03178-4
Ariyoshi S, Hashimoto S, Ohnishi S, Negishi S, Mikami H, Hayashi K, Tanaka S, Hiroshiba N (2021) Broadband terahertz spectroscopy of cellulose nanofiber-reinforced polypropylenes. Mater Sci Eng B 265:115000. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mseb.2020.115000
Bagheriasl D, Carreau PJ, Dubois C, Riedl B (2015) Properties of polypropylene and polypropylene/poly(ethylene-co-vinyl alcohol) blend/CNC nanocomposites. Compos Sci Technol 117:357–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2015.07.012
Bikiaris B (2010) Microstructure and properties of polypropylene/carbon nanotube nanocomposites. Materials 3:2884–2946. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma3042884
Deng F, Ito M, Noguchi T, Wang L, Ueki H, Niihara KI, Kim YA, Endo M, Zeng QS (2011) Elucidation of the reinforcing mechanism in carbon nanotube/rubber nanocomposites. ACS Nano 5:3858–3866. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn200201u
Duan L, Liu R, Duan Y, Li Z, Li Q (2022) A simultaneous strategy for the preparation of acetylation modified cellulose nanofiber/polypropylene composites. Carbohydr Polym. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118744
Endo M, Noguchi T, Ito M, Takeuchi K, Hayashi T, Kim YA, Wanibuchi T, Jinnai H, Terrones M, Dresselhaus MS (2008) Extreme-performance rubber nanocomposites for probing and excavating deep oil resources using multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Adv Funct Mater 18:3403–3409. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.200801136
Fujisawa S, Saito T, Kimura S, Iwata T, Isogai A (2014) Comparison of mechanical reinforcement effects of surface-modified cellulose nanofibrils and carbon nanotubes in PLLA composites. Compos Sci Technol 90:96–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2013.10.021
Fukuzumi H, Saito T, Iwata T, Kumamoto Y, Isogai A (2009) Transparent and high gas barrier films of cellulose nanofibers prepared by TEMPO-mediated oxidation. Biomacromol 10:162–165. https://doi.org/10.1021/bm801065u
Fukuzumi H, Saito T, Okita Y, Isogai A (2010) Thermal stabilization of TEMPO-oxidized cellulose. Polym Degrd Stabil 95:1502–1508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2010.06.015
Guzmán de Villoria R, Miravete A (2007) Mechanical model to evaluate the effect of the dispersion in nanocomposites. Acta Matter 55:3025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2007.01.007
Gwon JG, Cho HJ, Lee D, Choi DH, Lee S, Wu Q, Lee SY (2018) Physicohemical and mechanical properties of polypropylene-cellulose nanocrystal nanocomposites: effects of manufacturing process and chemical grafting. Bioresources 13:1619‒1639 https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.13.1.169-1636
Hao W, Wang M, Zhou F, Luo H, Xie X, Luo F, Cha R (2020) A review on nanocellulose as a lightweight filler of polyolefin composites. Carbohydr Polym 243:116466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.116466
Haraguchi K, Ebato M, Takehisa T (2006) Polymer–clay nanocomposites exhibiting abnormal necking phenomena accompanied by extremely large reversible elongations and excellent transparency. Adv Mater 18:2250–2254. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.200600143
Hassan ML, Mathew AP, Hassan EA, Fadel SM, Oksman K (2014) Improving cellulose/polypropylene nanocomposites properties with chemical modified bagasse nanofibers and maleated polypropylene. J Reinf Plast Comp 33:26–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731684413509292
Hassanabadi HM, Alemdar A, Rodrigue D (2015) Polypropylene reinforced with nanocrystalline cellulose: Coupling agent optimization. J Appl Polym Sci 132:42438. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.42438
Hussain F, Hojjati M, Okamoto M, Gorga RE (2006) Review article: polymer-matrix nanocomposites, processing, manufacturing, and application: an overview. J Compo Mater 40:1151–1575. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998306067321
Isogai A (2021) Emerging nanocellulose technologies: Recent developments. Adv Mater 33:2000630. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202000630
Isogai A, Saito T, Fukuzumi H (2011) TEMPO-Oxidized Cellulose Nanofibers. Nanoscale 3:71–85. https://doi.org/10.1039/C0NR00583E
Isogai A, Hänninen T, Fujisawa S, Saito T (2018) Review: Catalytic oxidation of cellulose with nitroxyl radicals under aqueous conditions. Prog Polym Sci 86:122–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2018.07.007
Iwamoto S, Kai W, Isogai A, Iwata T (2009) Elastic modulus of single cellulose microfibrils from tunicate measured by atomic force microscopy. Biomacromol 10:2571–2576. https://doi.org/10.1021/bm900520n
Iyer KA, Schueneman GT, Torkelson JM (2015) Cellulose nanocrystal/polyolefin biocomposites prepared by solid-state shear pulverization: Superior dispersion leading to synergistic property enhancements. Polymer 56:464–475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2014.11.017
Japanese Industrial Standards (2016) Rubber, vulcanized or thermoplastic - Determination of the effect of liquids. K 6258 https://webdesk.jsa.or.jp/books/W11M0090/?bunsyo_id=JIS%20K%206258:2016
Mathot VBF, Pijpers MFJ (1989) Heat capacity, enthalpy and crystallinity of polymers from DSC measurements and determination of the DSC peak base line. Thermochim Acta 151:241–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-6031(89)85354-7
Morita A, Matsuba G, Fujimoto M (2021) Evaluation of hydrophilic cellulose nanofiber dispersions in a hydrophobic isotactic polypropylene composite. J Appl Polym Sci 138:49896. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.49896
Mousavi SR, Nejad SF, Jafari M, Paydayesh A (2021) Polypropylene/ethylene propylene diene monomer/cellulose nanocrystal ternary blend nanocomposites: Effects of different parameters on mechanical, rheological, and thermal properties. Polym Compos 42:4187–4198. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.26137
Nagalaksimaiah M, Kissi NE, Dufresne A (2016) Ionic compatibilization of cellulose nanocrystals with quaternary ammonium salt and their melt extrusion with polypropylene. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 8:8755–8764. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.6b01650
Nagamine S, Mizuno Y, Hikima Y, Okada K, Wang L, Ohsima M (2021) Reinforcement of polypropylene by cellulose microfibers modified with polydopamine and octadecylamine. J Appl Polym Sci 138:49851. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.49851
Noguchi T, Niihara K, Iwamoto R, Matsuda G, Endo M, Isogai A (2021a) Nanocellulose/polyethylene nanocomposite sheets prepared from an oven-dried nanocellulose by elastic kneading. Compos Sci Technol 207:108734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2021.108734
Noguchi T, Niihara K, Kurashima A, Iwamoto R, Miura T, Koyama A, Endo Marubayashi H, Kumagai A, Jinnai H, Isogai A (2021b) Cellulose nanofiber-reinforced rubber composites prepared by TEMPO-functionalization and elastic kneading. Compos Sci Technol 210:108815. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2021.108815
Noguchi T, Bamba Y, Miura T, Iwamoto R, Endo M, Isogai A (2021c) Cellulose-nanofiber-reinforced rubber composites with resorcinol resin prepared by elastic kneading. Macromol Mater Eng 306:2100483. https://doi.org/10.1002/mame.202100483
Pakzad A, Simonsen J, Heiden PA, Yassar RS (2012) Size effects on the nanomechanical properties of cellulose I nanocrystals. J Mater Res 27:528–536. https://doi.org/10.1557/jmr.2011.288
Paul DR, Robeson LM (2008) Polymer nanotechnology: Nanocomposites. Polymer 49:3187–3204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymer.2008.04.017
Saito T, Kuramae R, Wohlert J, Berglund LA, Isogai A (2013) An ultrastrong nanofibrillar biomaterial: the strength of single cellulose nanofibrils revealed via sonication-induced fragmentation. Biomacromol 14:248–253. https://doi.org/10.1021/bm301674e
Sakurada I, Nukushima Y, Ito T (1962) Experimental determination of the elastic modulus of crystalline regions in oriented polymers. J Polym Sci 57:651. https://doi.org/10.1002/pol.1962.1205716551
Sanders JE, Wang L, Gardner DJ (2020) Comparing mechanical properties of impact modified polypropylene-copolymer (IMPP) from injection molding (IM) and fused layer modeling (FLM) processes. Rapid Prototyping J 26:993–1003. https://doi.org/10.1108/RPJ-10-2018-0260
Shin H, Kim S, Kim J, Kong S, Lee Y, Lee JC (2022) Preparation of 3-pentadecylphenol-modified cellulose nanocrystal and its application as a filler to polypropylene nanocomposites having improved antibacterial and mechanical properties. J Appl Polym Sci 139:51848. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.51848
Sojoudiasli H, Heuzey MC, Carreau PJ (2018) Mechanical and morphological properties of cellulose nanocrystal-polypropylene composites. Polym Compos 39:3605–3617. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.24383
Suzuki K, Okumura H, Kitagawa K, Sato S, Nakagaito AN, Yano H (2013) Development of continuous process enabling nanofibrillation of pulp and melt compounding. Cellulose 20:201–210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-012-9843-9
Suzuki K, Sato A, Okumura H, Hashimoto T, Nakagaito AN, Yano H (2014) Novel high-strength, micro fibrillated cellulose-reinforced polypropylene composites using a cationic polymer as compatibilizer. Cellulose 21:507–518. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-013-0143-9
Takaichi S, Saito T, Tanaka R, Isogai A (2014) Improvement of nanodispersibility of oven-dried TEMPO-oxidized celluloses in water. Cellulose 21:4093–4103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-014-0444-7
Toyama Kankyo Seibi (2021) https://www.tks-co.jp/
Vinyl Environmental Council (2021) https://www.vec.gr.jp/statistics/statistics_4.html
Wang L, Gardner DJ, Wang J, Yang Y, Tekinalp HL, Tajvidi M, Li K, Zhao X, Neivandt DJ, Han Y, Ozcan S, Anderson J (2020) Towards industrial-scale production of cellulose nanocomposites using melt processing: A critical review on structure-processing-property relationships. Composites B 201:108297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2020.108297
Yang HS, Gardner DJ (2011) Mechanical properties of cellulose nanofibril-filled polypropylene composites. Wood Fiber Sci 43:143–152
Yang HS, Gardner DJ, Nader JW (2013) Morphological properties of impact fracture surfaces and essential work of fracture analysis of cellulose nanofibril-filled polypropylene composites. J Appl Polym Sci 128:3064–3076. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.38513
Yang Q, Saito T, Berglund LA, Isogai A (2015) Cellulose nanofibrils improve the properties of all-cellulose composites by the nano-reinforcement mechanism and nanofibril-induced crystallization. Nanoscale 7:17957–17963. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5NR05511C
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST) Center of Innovation Program (Grant Number JPMJCE1316) and in part by the JST Co-creation Field Support Program. This research was also supported by grants from the Project of the National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO) Bio-Oriented Technology Research Advancement Institution, Integration Research for Agriculture and Interdisciplinary Fields. We thank Edanz for editing a draft of this manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. The manuscript was approved by all authors for publication.
Ethical approval
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Niihara, Ki., Noguchi, T., Makise, T. et al. Cellulose nanofibril/polypropylene composites prepared under elastic kneading conditions. Cellulose 29, 4993–5006 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-022-04584-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-022-04584-9