Abstract
It is essential for textile manufacturing industries to invent new resources, composites and industrial technologies, which are environmentally acceptable and can fulfill the consumer necessities. Therefore, in the recent years, large number of research is focused on optimizing and modifying the fibre manufacturing processes. The recent advances in technology have allowed modifying these processes through various techniques and novel raw materials/additives to manufacture the fibres. Among the various fibre regeneration processes, the NMMO based lyocell process has numerous advantages over conventional rayon fibres and it has great potential to fulfil the environmental and customer requirements. The present review delivers a complete account of all the six types of cellulose regeneration processes namely viscose, cellulose acetate, cuprammonium, LiCl/DMAc as well as lyocell processes based on ionic liquid or NMMO. Additionally, the review considers latest developments with process technology, cellulose swelling and dissolution phenomena, factors affecting the lyocell process and future prospects of the lyocell fibres.
Graphical abstract
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Agbor VB, Cicek N, Sparling R et al (2011) Biomass pretreatment: fundamentals toward application. Biotechnol Adv 29:675–685
Alnokta (2009) File: cellulose acetate preparation.png—Wikimedia commons. In: Public domain
Alwis P, Taylor J (2001) Tencel A100—a new dimension in lyocell fibres. Melliand Text Int Text Rep 7:56–58
Bikova T, Treimanis A (2002) Problems of the MMD analysis of cellulose by SEC using DMA/LiCl: a review. Carbohydr Polym 48:23–28
Borbély É (2008) Lyocell, the new generation of regenerated cellulose. Acta Polytech Hung 5:11–18
Budtova T, Navard P (2016) Cellulose in NaOH–water based solvents: a review. Cellulose 23:5–55
Cai J, Kimura S, Wada M et al (2008) Cellulose aerogels from aqueous alkali hydroxide-urea solution. Chemsuschem 1:149–154
Camper IP, Bott CB (2006) Improvement of an industrial wastewater treatment system at a former viscose rayon plant-results from two-stage biological leachate treatability testing. In: Proceedings of the 79th WEFTEC, Dallas, TX, October 21–25, pp 1830–1845
Cao JH, Zhao JR (2015) Fenton depolymerization of cellulosic biomass in modified cuprammonium solution. BioResources 10:5949–5960
Cao Y, Wu J, Zhang J et al (2009) Room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs): a new and versatile platform for cellulose processing and derivatization. Chem Eng J 147:13–21
Chae DW, Kim BC, Lee WS (2002) Rheological characterization of cellulose solutions in N-methyl morpholine N-oxide monohydrate. J Appl Polym Sci 86:216–222
Chanzy H (1982) Cellulose-amine oxide systems. Carbohydr Polym 2:229–231
Chavan RB, Patra AK (2004) Review article: development and processing of lyocell. Indian J Fibre Text Res 29:483–492
Cockroft MR, Fisher L (2012) Process for processing cellulose films or shaped articles. EP2710054A1
Cohen AC (Writer on textile industry), Johnson I, Pizzuto JJ (Joseph J) (2012) J.J. Pizzuto’s Fabric science. Fairchild Books
Collier BJ, Dever M, Petrovan S et al (2000) Rheology of lyocell solutions from different cellulose sources. J Polym Environ 8:151–154
Cook JG (James G) (1984) Handbook of textile fibres. Merrow
Cuissinat C, Navard P (2006) Swelling and dissolution of cellulose part 1: free floating cotton and wood fibres in N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide–water mixtures. In: Macromolecular symposia, vol 244
Cuissinat C, Navard P, Heinze T (2008) Swelling and dissolution of cellulose, Part V: cellulose derivatives fibres in aqueous systems and ionic liquids. Cellulose 15:75–80
Dawsey TR, Mccormick CL (1990) The lithium chloride/dimethylacetamide solvent for cellulose: a literature review. J Macromol Sci C Polym Rev 30:405–440
Deo HT (2001) Ecofriendly textile production. Indian J Fibre Text Res 26:61–73
Derecskei B, Derecskei-Kovacs A (2006) Molecular dynamic studies of the compatibility of some cellulose derivatives with selected ionic liquids. Mol Simul 32:109–115
Duchemin BJ-C (2008) Structure, property and processing relationships of all-cellulose composites. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Canterbury
Egal M, Budtova T, Navard P (2007) Structure of aqueous solutions of microcrystalline cellulose/sodium hydroxide below 0 °C and the limit of cellulose dissolution. Biomacromol 8:2282–2287
Ertas Y, Uyar T (2017) Fabrication of cellulose acetate/polybenzoxazine cross-linked electrospun nanofibrous membrane for water treatment. Carbohydr Polym 177:378–387
Fink H-P, Weigel P, Purz HJ, Ganster J (2001) Structure formation of regenerated cellulose materials from NNMO-solutions. Prog Polym Sci 26:1473–1524
Firgo H, Schuster KC, Suchomel F et al (2006) The functional properties of tencel. Lenzing Ber 85:22–30
Fujii S, Sasaki N, Nakata M (2001) Rheological studies on the phase separation of hydroxypropylcellulose solution systems. J Polym Sci Part B Polym Phys 39:1976–1986
Gavillon R, Budtova T (2007) Kinetics of cellulose regeneration from cellulose–NaOH–water gels and comparison with cellulose–N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide–water solutions. Biomacromol 8:424–432
Ghasemi M, Alexandridis P, Tsianou M (2017a) Cellulose dissolution: insights on the contributions of solvent-induced decrystallization and chain disentanglement. Cellulose 24:571–590
Ghasemi M, Singapati AY, Tsianou M, Alexandridis P (2017b) Dissolution of semicrystalline polymer fibres: numerical modeling and parametric analysis. AIChE J 63:1368–1383
Ghasemi M, Tsianou M, Alexandridis P (2017c) Assessment of solvents for cellulose dissolution. Bioresour Technol 228:330–338
Goel R, Bitzer ZT, Reilly SM et al (2018) Effect of charcoal in cigarette filters on free radicals in mainstream smoke. Chem Res Toxicol 31:745–751
Gorji M, Bagherzadeh R (2016) Moisture management behaviors of high wicking fabrics composed of profiled fibres. Indian J Fibre Text Res 41:318–324
Gorman-Lewis DJ, Fein JB (2004) Experimental study of the adsorption of an ionic liquid onto bacterial and mineral surfaces. Environ Sci Technol 38:2491–2495
Goswami P, Blackburn RS, Taylor J, White P (2009) Dyeing behaviour of lyocell fabric: effect of NaOH pre-treatment. Cellulose 16:481–489
Hauru LKJ, Hummel M, Michud A, Sixta H (2017) Erratum to: dry jet-wet spinning of strong cellulose filaments from ionic liquid solution (Cellulose, (2014), 21, 6, (4471–4481). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-014-0414-0). Cellulose 24:3109–3110
Hearle JWS, Woodings C (2001) Regenerated cellulose fibres. CRC Press LLC, Woodhead Publishing Ltd, Cambridge, UK
Hergert HL, Daul GC (1977) Rayon—a fiber with a future. In: ACS Symposium Series, vol 58, pp 1–11
Hibbert R (2014) What textile fibres are applicable for the layering system for the active ageing?. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Hong YK, Chung KH, Lee WS (1998) Structure of regenerated cellulose fibres from DMAc/LiCl solution. Text Res J 68:65–69
Huber T, Müssig J, Curnow O et al (2012) A critical review of all-cellulose composites. J Mater Sci 47:1171–1186
Jabbar M, Shaker K (2016) Textile raw materials. Phys Sci Rev 1:101–105
Jeong JC, Kim WC, Jin SW, Lee SY, Lee SM (2017) Lyocell fiber. US 2017/0121857 A1
Jia B, Yu L, Fu F et al (2014) Preparation of helical fibres from cellulose–cuprammonium solution based on liquid rope coiling. RSC Adv 4:9112–9117
Jiang G, Huang W, Li L et al (2012) Structure and properties of regenerated cellulose fibres from different technology processes. Carbohydr Polym 87:2012–2018
Jing H, Liu Z, Li H et al (2007) Solubility of wood-cellulose in LiCl/DMAC solvent system. For Stud China 9:217–220
Kadolph SJ (2009) Textiles. Pearson, London
Karimi K, Taherzadeh MJ (2016) A critical review of analytical methods in pretreatment of lignocelluloses: composition, imaging, and crystallinity. Bioresour Technol 200:1008–1018
Kihlman M (2012) Dissolution of cellulose for textile fibre applications. DIVA, New York
Kim DB, Jo SM, Lee WS, Pak JJ (2004) Physical agglomeration behavior in preparation of cellulose-N-methyl morpholine N-oxide hydrate solutions by simple mixing. J Appl Polym Sci 93:1687–1697
Kosan B, Michels C, Meister F (2008) Dissolution and forming of cellulose with ionic liquids. Cellulose 15:59–66
Kozłowski RM, Mackiewicz-Talarczyk M (2012) Introduction to natural textile fibres. Handb Nat Fibres 1:1–8
Krässig H, Schurz J, Steadman RG, Schliefer K, Albrecht W, Mohring M, Schlosser H (2004) Cellulose. In: Ullmann’s encyclopedia of industrial chemistry. Wiley, KGaA, Weinheim
Le Moigne N, Jardeby K, Navard P (2010) Structural changes and alkaline solubility of wood cellulose fibres after enzymatic peeling treatment. Carbohydr Polym 79:325–332
Le Moigne N, Navard P (2010) Dissolution mechanisms of wood cellulose fibres in NaOH–water. Cellulose 17:31–45
Li Y, Liu X, Zhuang X et al (2016) Rheological behavior and spinnability of ethylamine hydroxyethyl chitosan/cellulose co-solution in N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide system. Fibres Polym 17:778–788
Lindman B, Medronho B, Theliander H (2015) Editorial: cellulose dissolution and regeneration: systems and interactions. Nord Pulp Pap Res J 30:2–3
Liu Y, Shi L, Cheng D, He Z (2016) Dissolving pulp market and technologies: Chinese prospective—a mini-review. BioResources 11:7902–7916
Macfarlane K (1997) Nonwovens application of lyocell fibre. Chem Fibers Int 47(4):328–332
Mäki-Arvela P, Anugwom I, Virtanen P et al (2010) Dissolution of lignocellulosic materials and its constituents using ionic liquids—a review. Ind Crops Prod 32:175–201
Medronho B, Lindman B (2014) Competing forces during cellulose dissolution: from solvents to mechanisms. Curr Opin Colloid Interface Sci 19:32–40
Mehrabi F, Shamspur T, Mostafavi A et al (2017) Synthesis of cellulose acetate nanofibres and its application in the release of some drugs. Nanomed Res J 2:199–207
Meister F, Kosan B (2015) A tool box for characterization of pulps and cellulose dopes in Lyocell technology. Nord Pulp Pap Res J 30:112–120
Mohd N, Draman SFS, Salleh MSN, Yusof NB (2017) Dissolution of cellulose in ionic liquid: a review. AIP Conf Proc 1809:020035
Morabito JA, Holman MR, Ding YS et al (2017) The use of charcoal in modified cigarette filters for mainstream smoke carbonyl reduction. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 86:117–127
Mordor Intelligence (2018) Viscose staple fiber market | trend | price | analysis (2018–2023). https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/viscose-staple-fiber-market. Accessed 8 Aug 2018
Nagarkar S, Ojha R, Mankad J et al (2006) Measuring the elongation viscosity of lyocell using a semi-hyperbolic die. Rheol Acta 45:260–267
Nakasone K, Ikematsu S, Kobayashi T (2016) Biocompatibility evaluation of cellulose hydrogel film regenerated from sugar cane bagasse waste and its in vivo behavior in mice. Ind Eng Chem Res 55:30–37
Navard P, Cuissinat C (2006) Cellulose swelling and dissolution as a tool to study the fibre structure. In: 7th international symposium “alternative cellulose—manufacturing, forming, properties”, p 7
Nomura H (2004) Inserting paper for glass-like sheet materials. EP1452643B1
Okano T, Sarko A (1985) Mercerization of cellulose. II. Alkali–cellulose intermediates and a possible mercerization mechanism. J Appl Polym Sci 30:325–332
Olsson C, Westm G (2013) Direct dissolution of cellulose: background, means and applications. Cellul - Fundam Asp, London
Opietnik M, Goldhalm G, Firgo H (2018) Use of a lyocell fiber. US 2018 / 0258375 A1.
Parviainen A, Wahlström R, Liimatainen U et al (2015) Sustainability of cellulose dissolution and regeneration in 1,5-diazabicyclo[4.3.0]non-5-enium acetate: a batch simulation of the IONCELL-F process. RSC Adv 5:69728–69737
Paulitz J, Sigmund I, Kosan B, Meister F (2017) Lyocell fibres for textile processing derived from organically grown hemp. Proc Eng 200:260–268
Peng H, Dai G, Wang S, Xu H (2017) The evolution behavior and dissolution mechanism of cellulose in aqueous solvent. J Mol Liq 241:959–966
Periyasamy AP, Khanum MR (2015) Technical articles effect of fibrillation on pilling tendency of lyocell fibre. Text today, Tech Artic Issue April 2–6, 2012
Petrie CJS (1995) Extensional flow—a mathematical perspective. Rheol Acta 34:12–26
Petrovan S, Collier JR, Morton GH (2000) Rheology of cellulosic N-methylmorpholine oxide monohydrate solutions. J Appl Polym Sci 77:1369–1377
Petrovan S, Collier JR, Negulescu II (2001) Rheology of cellulosic N-methylmorpholine oxide monohydrate solutions of different degrees of polymerization. J Appl Polym Sci 79:396–405
Pinkert A, Marsh KN, Pang S (2010) Reflections on the solubility of cellulose. Ind Eng Chem Res 49:11121–11130
Pocien R, Žemaitaitien R, Vitkauskas A (2004) Mechanical properties and a physical–chemical analysis of acetate yarns. Mater Sci 10:1–5
Qi G, Xiong L, Wang B et al (2017) Improvement and characterization in enzymatic hydrolysis of regenerated wheat straw dissolved by LiCl/DMAc solvent system. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 181:177–191
Rabideau BD, Ismail AE (2015) Effect of water content in N-methylmorpholine N-oxide/cellulose solutions on thermodynamics, structure, and hydrogen bonding. J Phys Chem B 119:15014–15022
Ramamoorthy SK, Skrifvars M, Persson A (2015) A review of natural fibres used in biocomposites: plant, animal and regenerated cellulose fibres. Polym Rev 55:107–162
Ramos LA, Morgado DL, Gessner F et al (2011) A physical organic chemistry approach to dissolution of cellulose: effects of cellulose mercerization on its properties and on the kinetics of its decrystallization. Arkivoc 7:416–425
Reportbuyer (2017) Cellulose acetate market size, forecast and trend analysis, 2014–2024. In: Reportbuyer
Rojas OJ (2016) Cellulose chemistry and properties: fibres, nanocelluloses and advanced materials. Spinger, Raleigh
Rosenau T, Potthast A, Sixta H, Kosma P (2001) The chemistry of side reactions and byproduct formation in the system NMMO/cellulose. Prog Polym Sci 26:1763–1837
Sayyed AJ, Mohite LV, Deshmukh NA, Pinjari DV (2018a) Effect of ultrasound treatment on swelling behavior of cellulose in aqueous N-methyl-morpholine-N-oxide solution. Ultrason Sonochem 49:161–168
Sayyed AJ, Mohite LV, Deshmukh NA, Pinjari DV (2018b) Structural characterization of cellulose pulp in aqueous NMMO solution under the process conditions of lyocell slurry. Carbohydr Polym 206:220–228
Schweizer T (2000) The uniaxial elongational rheometer RME—six years of experience. Rheol Acta 39:428–443
Seavey KC, Ghosh I, Davis RM, Glasser WG (2001) Continuous cellulose fibre-reinforced cellulose ester composites. I. Manufacturing options. Cellulose 8:149–159
Sen S, Martin JD, Argyropoulos DS (2013) Review of cellulose non-derivatizing solvent interactions with emphasis on activity in inorganic molten salt hydrates. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 1:858–870
Shen L, Worrell E, Patel MK (2010) Environmental impact assessment of man-made cellulose fibres. Resour Conserv Recycl 55:260–274
Shirin J, Hummel M, Michud A (2015) Submit your paper as a PDF file without page numbers by spinning use rheological requirements for continuous filament of times roman font throughout point for the title. Liq Solut 23:13–20
Si XP, Zhang SJ, Chen Y et al (2015) The research development of cellulose acetate fibre and cellulose acetate nanofibre used as filtering materials. Key Eng Mater 671:279–284
Singh Z, Bhalla S (2017) Toxicity of synthetic fibres & health. Adv Res Text Eng 2(1):1012
Sixta H (2015) Ioncell-F: a high-strength regenerated cellulose fibre. Nord Pulp Pap Res J 30:043–057
Spiegelberg SH, McKinley GH (1996) Stress relaxation and elastic decohesion of viscoelastic polymer solutions in extensional flow. J Nonnewton Fluid Mech 67:49–76
Spiegelberg SH, Ables DC, McKinley GH (1996) The role of end-effects on measurements of extensional viscosity in filament stretching rheometers. J Nonnewton Fluid Mech 64:229–267
Spinu M, Dos Santos N, Le Moigne N, Navard P (2011) How does the never-dried state influence the swelling and dissolution of cellulose fibres in aqueous solvent? Cellulose 18:247–256
Sun N (2010) Dissolution and processing of cellulosic materials with ionic liquids: fundamentals and applications. The University of Alabama
Swatloski RP, Spear SK, Holbrey JD, Rogers RD (2002) Dissolution of cellose with ionic liquids. J Am Chem Soc 124:4974–4975
Vagt U (2010) Cellulose dissolution and processing with ionic liquids. In: Wasserscheid P, Stark A (eds) Handbook of green chemistry. Ionic Liquids, vol 6. Wiley, KGaA, Weinheim
Vigneswaran C, Ananthasubramanian M, Kandhavadivu P (2014) Bioprocessing of textiles, illustrate. WPI India, New Dehli
Wald S, Wilke CR, Blanch HW (1984) Kinetics of the enzymic hydrolysis of cellulose. Biotechnol Bioeng 26:221–230
Wanasekara ND, Michud A, Zhu C et al (2016) Deformation mechanisms in ionic liquid spun cellulose fibres. Polymer (Guildf) 99:222–230
Wang X, Li Q, Di Y, Xing G (2012) Preparation and properties of flame-retardant viscose fibre containing phosphazene derivative. Fibres Polym 13:718–723
Watabe Y, Suzuki Y, Koike S et al (2018) Cellulose acetate, a new candidate feed supplement for ruminant animals: in vitro evaluations. J Dairy Sci 101:1–10
Watkins S (1999) The use of tencel in pure and in blend with wool in textiles. DWI Rep 99:390–394
Woodings C (2001) Regenerated cellulose fibres. Taylor & Francis, London
Woodings C (2003) Regenerated cellulose fibres. Woodhead Publishing Ltd and CRC Press LLC, Cambridge
Xu Y, Qiu C, Ma F et al (2017) Preparation method of novel plant protein viscose fibre. Faming Zhuanli Shenqing (2017), CN 1063508
Yamane C, Abe K, Satho M, Miyamoto H (2015) Dissolution of cellulose nanofibres in aqueous sodium hydroxide solution. Nord Pulp Pap Res J 30:92–98
Yang JZ, Liu GM, Sun DP (2014) Hemodialysis membrane prepared from bacterial cellulose/lithium chloride/N,N-dimethylacetamide solution. Adv Mater Res 1048:395–399
Young R (2017) Global trends in dissolving pulp. Spectrum 36(2):52–53
Zhang W, Okubayashi S, Badura W, Bechtold T (2006) Fibrillation tendency of cellulosic fibres. VII. Combined effects of treatments with an alkali, crosslinking agent, and reactive dye. J Appl Polym Sci 100:1176–1183
Zhang H, Liu X, Li D, Li R (2009) Effect of cellulose concentration in NMMO·H2O solution on prediction of MW and MWD of cellulose using a rheology-based method. Polym Eng Sci 49:554–558
Zhang YF, Zhang PR, Wu J et al (2016) The rheological properties of bamboo cellulose pulp/ionic liquid system. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 137:012071
Zhang S, Chen C, Duan C et al (2018) Regenerated cellulose by the lyocell process, a brief review of the process and properties. BioResources 13:4577–4592
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to Pulp and Fibre Innovation Centre (PFIC)—A Unit of Grasim Industries Ltd. Aditya Birla Group Company for funding the Ph.D. program. We also would like to thank Institute of Chemical Technology (ICT) for academic support.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sayyed, A.J., Deshmukh, N.A. & Pinjari, D.V. A critical review of manufacturing processes used in regenerated cellulosic fibres: viscose, cellulose acetate, cuprammonium, LiCl/DMAc, ionic liquids, and NMMO based lyocell. Cellulose 26, 2913–2940 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-019-02318-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-019-02318-y