Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Mentalizing and Emotional Labor Facilitate Equine-Assisted Social Work with Self-harming Adolescents

  • Published:
Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This article explores equine-assisted social work (EASW). Horses’ capacities to mirror human emotions create possibilities for authentic relationships between clients and staff. This study examines what eases or counteracts the horse’s capacity to facilitate relationships perceived by humans to be authentic. Video recordings of the human-horse interactions of three staff members and four female self-harming clients aged 15–21 years in a residential treatment facility were analyzed. The findings show that if the staff gave instructions and advice similar to traditional equestrian sports in combination with viewing the horse as an object, EASW is not facilitated. EASW seems to be facilitated when the horse is perceived as a subject by both staff and clients, provided that the staff gave meaning to the horse’s behavior. The staff needed to highlight empathy for the horse when the horse is not able to fulfill its task without adding depth to the client’s performance, to avoid raising defense mechanisms. The essence of EASW were perceived as eased by staff members when they focus on the client’s emotions and help the client understand that the horse is acting in response to the client’s and the staff’s behavior through mentalizing and enacting emotional labor in regarding the horse as a subject. The results indicate the need for higher demands on staff members in order to facilitate EASW. Depending on whether the staff and the clients focus on performance or on emotions, different positive or negative outcomes on communication, self-confidence, self-esteem, and self-image will be likely to emerge.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abrahamsson, E., Torbiornsson, A., & Hägglöf, B. (2007). Causes of adolescent onset anorexia nervosa: Patient perspectives. Journal of Eating Disorders, 15, 125–133. doi:10.1080/10640260701190642.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alvesson, M., & Kärreman, D. (2007). Contructing mystery: Emirical matters in theory development. Academy of Management Review, 32, 1265–1281. doi:10.5465/AMR.2007.26586822.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bachi, K. (2013). Application of attachment theory to equine-facilitated psychotherapy. Journal Contemporary Psychotherapy, 43, 187–196. doi:10.1007/s10879-013-9232-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bachi, K. (2014) An equine-facilitated prison-based program: Human-horse relations and effects on imate emotions and behaviors Dissertation and Theses Paper 162.

  • Bachi, K., Terkel, J., & Teichman, M. (2012). Equine-facilitated psychotherapy for at-risk adolescents: The influence on self-image, self-control and trust. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17, 298–312. doi:10.1177/1359104511404177.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bateman, A. W. & Fonagy, P. (Ed.) (2012) Handbook of mentalizing in mental health practice USA. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

  • Beck, A. M., & Katcher, A. H. (2003). Future directions in human-animal bond research. American Behavioral Scientist, 47, 79–93. doi:10.1177/0002764203255214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bizub, A. L., Joy, A., & Davidson, L. (2003). “It’s like being in another world”: Demonstrating the benefits of therapeutic horseback riding for individuals with psychiatric disability. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 26, 377–384.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burgon, H. L. (2003). Case studies of a group of adult users of a mental health team receiving riding therapy. Anthrozoos, 16, 263–277. doi:10.2752/089279303786992099.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlsson, C., Nilsson-Ranta, D., & Træen, B. (2014). Equine-assisted social work as a mean for authentic relations between clients and staff human-animal interaction. Bulletin, 2(1), 19–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chamove, A. S., Crawley-Hatrick, O. J. E., & Stafford, K. J. (2002). Horse reactions to human attitudes and behaviour. Anthrozoös, 15, 323–331. doi:10.2752/089279302786992423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dell, C. A., Chalmers, D., Bresette, N., Swain, S., Rankin, D., & Hopkins, C. (2011). A healing space: The experiences of first nations and inuit youth with equine-assisted learning (EAL). Child and Youth Care Forum, 40, 319–336. doi:10.1007/s10566-011-9140-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dell, C. A., Chalmers, D., Dell, D., Sauve, E., & MacKinnon, T. (2008). Horse as healer: An examination of equine assisted learning in the healing of first nations youth from solvent abuse. A Journal of Aboriginal and Indigenous Community Health, 6, 81–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ekesbo, I. (2011). Farm animal behaviour characteristics for assessment of health and welfare. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Endenburg, N., & van Lith, H. A. (2011). The influence of animals on the development of children. The Veterinary Journal, 190, 208–214. doi:10.1016/j.tvjl.2010.11.020.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ewing, C. A., MacDonald, P. M., Taylor, M., & Bowers, M. J. (2007). Equine-facilitated learning for youths with severe emotional disorders: A quantitative and qualitative study. Child Youth Care Forum, 36, 59–72. doi:10.1007/s10566-006-9031-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gianini, L. M., White, M. A., & Masheb, R. M. (2013). Eating pathology, emotion regulation and emotional overeating in obese adults with binge eating disorders. Eating Behaviors, 14, 309–313. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2013.05.008.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenwald, A. J. (2001). The effects of therapeutic horsemanship program on emotionally disturbed boys. Dissertation Abstracts International 62, 1078-B.

  • Guy, M., Newman, M. A., Mastracci, S. H., & Maynard-Moody, S. (2010). Emotional Labor in the Human Service Organization. In Y. Hasenfeld (Ed.), Human services as complex organizations (291-310). London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagqvist, C. (2010). Discrepant trends in mental health complaints among younger and older adolescents in Sweden: An Analysis of WHO Data 1985-2005. Journal of Adolescent Health, 46, 258–264. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.07.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hama, H., Yogo, M., & Matsuyama, Y. (1996). Effects of stroking horses on both humans and horses heart rate responses. Japanese Psychological Research, 38, 66–73. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5884.1996.tb00009.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hartman, E., Sondergaard, E., & Keeling, L. J. (2012). Keeping horses in groups: A review. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 136(2–4), 77–87. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2011.10.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hauge, H., Kvalem, I. L., Pedersen, I., & Braastad, B. O. (2013). Equine-assisted activities for adolescents: Ethogram-based behavioral analysis of persistence during horse-related tasks and communication patterns with the horse. Human-Animal Interaction Bulletin, 1(2), 57–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heath, C., Hindmarsh, J., & Luff, P. (2010). Video in qualitative research analysing social interaction in everyday life. London: SAGE.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henry, S., Hemery, D., Richard, M.-A., & Hausberger, M. (2005). Human-mare relationships and behaviour of foals toward humans. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 50, 341–362. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2005.01.008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holmes, C. M. P., Goodwin, D., Redhead, E. S., & Goymour, K. L. (2011). The benefits of equine assisted activities: An exploratory study. Child Adolescent Social Work Journal, 29, 111–122. doi:10.1007/s10560-011-0251-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holmqvist, R., Carlberg, M., & Hellgren, L. (2007). Deliberate self-harm behaviour in Swedish adolescent girls reports from public assessment and treatment agencies. Child and Youth Care Forum, 37, 1–13. doi:10.1007/s10566-007-9044-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jablonska, B., Lindberg, L., Lindblad, F., & Hjern, A. (2009). Ethnicity, socio-economic status and self-harm in Swedish youth: a national cohort study. Psychological Medicine, 38, 87–94. doi:10.1017/S0033291708003176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jordan, J. V. (2010). Relational-cultural therapy. Baltimore, MD: United Book Press, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karol, J. (2007). Applying a traditional individual psychotherapy model to equine-facilitated psychotherapy (EFP): Theory and method. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 12, 77–90. doi:10.1177/1359104507071057.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kåver, A. & Nilsone, Å. (2003). Dialektisk beteendeterapi vid emotionellt instabil personlighetsstörning-Teori, strategi och teknik Stockholm Natur och Kultur.

  • Klontz, B. T., Bivens, A., Leinart, D., & Klontz, T. (2007). The effectiveness of equine-assisted experiential therapy: Results of an open clinical trial. Society and Animals, 15, 257–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lundh, L.-G., & Bjärhed, J. (2008). Deliberate self-harm in 14-year-old adolescent: how frequent is it, and how is it associated with psychopathology, relationship variables, and styles of emotional regulation? Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 37(1), 26–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lundh, L.-G., Karim, J., & Quilisch, E. (2007). Deliberate self-harm in 15-year-old adolescent: A pilot study with a modified version of the deliberate self-harm inventory Scandinavian. Journal of Psychology, 48, 33–41. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2007.00567.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lunner, K., Werthem, E. H., Thompson, J. K., Paxton, S. J., McDonald, F., & Halvaarson, K. S. (2000). A cross-cultural examination of weight-related teasing, body image, and eating disturbance in Swedish and Australian samples. The International Journal of Eating Disorders, 28, 430–435.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Macauley, B. L., & Gutierrez, K. M. (2004). The effectiveness of hippo therapy for children with language—learning disabilities. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 25, 205–217. doi:10.1177/15257401040250040501.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Minero, M., & Canali, E. (2008). Welfare issues of horses an overview and practical recommendations. Italian Journal Animal Science, 8(suppl.1), 219–230.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muehlenkamp, J. J., Peat, C. M., Claes, L., & Smits, D. (2012). Self-injury and disordered eating: Expressing emotion dysregulation through the body. Suicide and Life-Treatening Behavior, 42, 416–425. doi:10.1111/j.1943-278X.2012.00100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nevonen, L., & Broberg, A. G. (2000). The emergence of eating disorders: An exploratory study. European Eating Disorders Review, 8, 279–292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norring, C., Engström, I., & Enzell, K. (2002). Eating disorders across Europe Swedish eating disorders services-a brief modern history. European Eating Disorders Review, 10, 161–167. doi:10.1002/erv.456.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pauw, J. (2000). Therapeutic horseback riding studies: Problems experienced by researches. Physiotherapy, 86, 523–527. doi:10.1016/S0031-9406(05)60986-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pendry, P., & Roeter, S. (2013). Experimental trial demonstrates positive effects of equine facilitated learning on child social competence. Human-Animal Interaction Bulletin, 1(1), 1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Porter-Wenzlaff, L. (2007). Finding their voice: Developing emotional, cognitive, and behavioral congruence in female abuse survivors through equine-facilitated therapy. Nursing, 3, 529–534.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richmond, P. A., & Padgett, D. L. (2002). Finding the line: Boundary decisions in residential treatment residential treatment for children & youth, 20, 53–66. doi:10.1300/J007v20n01_04.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rothe, E. Q. (2005). From kids and horses: Equine facilitated psychotherapy for children. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 5, 002.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rothe, E. Q., Vega, B. J., Torres, R. M., Campos Soler, S. M., & Molina Pazos, R. M. (2005). From kids and horses: Equine facilitated psychotherapy for children. International Journal of Clinical Health Psychology, 5, 373–383.

    Google Scholar 

  • Searcy, Y. D. (2007). Placing the horse in front of the Wagon: Toward a conceptual understanding of the development of self-esteem in children and adolescents. Child and Adolescent Social Work, 24, 121–131. doi:10.1007/s10560-006-0070-9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silvers, J. A., Mc Rae, K., Gabrieli, J. D. E., Gross, J. J., Remy, K. A., & Ochsner, K. N. (2012). Age-related differences in emotional reactivity, regulation and rejection sensitivity in adolescence. Emotion, 12, 1235–1247. doi:10.1037/a0028297.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith-Osborne, A., & Selby, A. (2010). Implications of the literature in equine-assisted activities for use as a complementary intervention in social work practice with children and adolescents. Child Adolescent Social Work Journal, 27, 291–307. doi:10.1007/s10560-010-0201-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sweeney, A., Greenwood, K. E., Williams, S., Wykes, T., & Rose, D. S. (2013). Hearing the voices of service user researchers in collaborative qualitative data analysis: The case for multiple coding. Health Expectations, 16, 89–99. doi:10.1111/j.1369-7625.2012.00810.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vidrin, M., Owen-Smith, P., & Faulkner, P. (2002). Equine facilitated group psychotherapy applications for therapeutic vaulting. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 23, 587–603.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walter, U. M., & Petr, C. G. (2008). Family-centered residential treatment: Knowledge, research, and values converge. Residential Treatment for Children & Youth, 25(1), 1–16. doi:10.1080/08865710802209594.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zegers, M., Schuengel, C., van Ijzendoom, M., & Janssens, J. (2006). Attachment representations of institutionalized adolescents and their professional caregivers: Predicting the development of therapeutic relationships. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76, 325–334. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.76.3.325.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The researchers wish to thank the adolescents and staff members who participated in the EASW program. Funding for this Project was provided in part by Grants from the Children’s Welfare Foundation Sweden.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict interest.

Ethical standard

The regional Ethical Review Board in Linköping, Sweden, approved this study for both humans and animals (Dnr 2011/264-31, Dnr 31-8051/11), and the experiment was conducted in accordance with ethical standards, both considering humans and horses. All the participants gave their informed written consent to participate prior to their inclusion in the study. The study has been performed in accordance with the ethical standards laid down in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Social Work, Linnaeus University, 391 82, Kalmar, Sweden

    Catharina Carlsson

  2. Department of Social Work, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden

    Daniel Nilsson Ranta

  3. Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

    Bente Traeen

Authors
  1. Catharina Carlsson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Daniel Nilsson Ranta
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Bente Traeen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Catharina Carlsson.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Carlsson, C., Nilsson Ranta, D. & Traeen, B. Mentalizing and Emotional Labor Facilitate Equine-Assisted Social Work with Self-harming Adolescents. Child Adolesc Soc Work J 32, 329–339 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-015-0376-6

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-015-0376-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation