Abstract
Agriculture alters the biogeochemical cycling of nutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and silicon (Si) which contributes to the stoichiometric imbalance among these nutrients in aquatic systems. Limitation of Si relative to N and P can facilitate the growth of non-siliceous, potentially harmful, algal taxa which has severe environmental and economic impacts. Planting winter cover crops can retain N and P on the landscape, yet their effect on Si concentrations and stoichiometry is unknown. We analyzed three years of biweekly concentrations and loads of dissolved N, P, and Si from subsurface tile drains and stream water in two agricultural watersheds in northern Indiana. Intra-annual patterns in Si concentrations and stoichiometry showed that cover crop vegetation growth did not reduce in-stream Si concentrations as expected, although, compared to fallow conditions, winter cover crops increased Si:N ratios to conditions more favorable for diatom growth. To assess the risk of non-siliceous algal growth, we calculated a stoichiometric index to quantify biomass growth facilitated by excess N and P relative to Si. Index values showed a divergence between predicted algal growth and what we observed in the streams, indicating other factors influence algal community composition. The stoichiometric imbalance was more pronounced at high flows, suggesting increased risk of harmful blooms as climate change increases the frequency and intensity of precipitation in the midwestern U.S. Our data include some of the first published measurements of Si within small agricultural watersheds and provide the groundwork for understanding the role of agriculture on Si export and stoichiometry.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The raw data used in this analysis are freely available via the Environmental Data Initiative: https://doi.org/10.6073/pasta/31a6708386f378106da8f6963d30a32e.
References
Alexandre A, Meunier J-D, Colin F, Koud J-M (1997) Plant impact on the biogeochemical cycle of silicon and related weathering processes. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 61:677–682. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7037(97)00001-X
Anderson DM, Burkholder JM, Cochlan WP et al (2008) Harmful algal blooms and eutrophication: examining linkages from selected coastal regions of the United States. Harmful Algae 8:39–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2008.08.017
APHA (2017) Standard Method for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C., USA
Appling AP, Leon MP, McDowell WH (2015) Reducing bias and quantifying uncertainty in watershed flux estimates: the R package loadflex. Ecosphere 6:1–25. https://doi.org/10.1890/ES14-00517.1.sm
Bates D, Mächler M, Bolker B, Walker S (2015) Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. J Stat Softw 67:1–48
Beusen AHW, Bouwman AF, Dürr HH et al (2009) Global patterns of dissolved silica export to the coastal zone: results from a spatially explicit global model. Glob Biogeochem Cycles 23:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GB003281
Bieroza MZ, Heathwaite AL, Bechmann M et al (2018) The concentration-discharge slope as a tool for water quality management. Sci Total Environ 630:738–749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.256
Blanco-Canqui H, Shaver TM, Lindquist JL et al (2015) Cover crops and ecosystem services: insights from studies in temperate soils. Agron J 107:2449. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj15.0086
Boano F, Harvey JW, Marion A, Packman AI, Revelli R, Ridolfi L, Wörman A (2014) Hyporheic flow and transport processes: Mechanisms models and biogeochemical implications. Rev Geophys 52(4):603–679. https://doi.org/10.1002/2012RG000417
Bowling LC, Cherkauer KA, Lee CI et al (2020) Agricultural impacts of climate change in Indiana and potential adaptations. Clim Change 163:2005–2027. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-020-02934-9
Brzezinski MA (1985) The Si:C:N ratio of marine diatoms: interspecific variability and the effect of some environmental variables. J Phycol 21:347–357
Carey JC, Fulweiler RW (2012a) Human activities directly alter watershed dissolved silica fluxes. Biogeochemistry 111:125–138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-011-9671-2
Carey JC, Fulweiler RW (2012b) The terrestrial silica pump. PLoS ONE 7:e52932. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0052932
Carey JC, Fulweiler RW (2013) Watershed land use alters riverine silica cycling. Biogeochemistry 113:525–544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-012-9784-2
Carey JC, Fulweiler RW (2016) Human appropriation of biogenic silicon - the increasing role of agriculture. Funct Ecol 30:1331–1339. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12544
Carey JC, Jankowski K, Julian P et al (2019) Exploring silica stoichiometry on a large floodplain riverscape. Front Ecol Evol. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2019.00346
Cherkauer KA, Bowling LC, Byun K et al (2021) Climate change impacts and strategies for adaptation for water resource management in Indiana. Clim Change 165:21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-021-02979-4
Christopher SF, Tank JL, Mahl UH et al (2021) Effect of winter cover crops on soil nutrients in two row-cropped watersheds in Indiana. J Environ Qual 50:667–679. https://doi.org/10.1002/jeq2.20217
Conley D, Schelske C, Stoermer E (1993) Modification of the biogeochemical cycle of silica with eutrophication. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 101:179–192. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps101179
Conley DJ, Likens GE, Buso DC et al (2008) Deforestation causes increased dissolved silicate losses in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest. Glob Change Biol. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01667.x
Cornelis J, Delvaux B (2016) Soil processes drive the biological silicon feedback loop. Funct Ecol 30:1298–1310. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12704
Cornelis J-T, Delvaux B, Cardinal D et al (2010) Tracing mechanisms controlling the release of dissolved silicon in forest soil solutions using Si isotopes and Ge/Si ratios. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 74:3913–3924. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2010.04.056
Daryanto S, Fu B, Wang L et al (2018) Quantitative synthesis on the ecosystem services of cover crops. Earth-Sci Rev 185:357–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.06.013
David MB, Drinkwater LE, McIsaac GF (2010) Sources of nitrate yields in the Mississippi River Basin. J Environ Qual 39:1657. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2010.0115
De La Rocha CL (2003) The biological pump. In: Treatise on Geochemistry. Elsevier
Downing JA, Cherrier CT, Fulweiler RW (2016) Low ratios of silica to dissolved nitrogen supplied to rivers arise from agriculture not reservoirs. Ecol Lett 19:1414–1418. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12689
Dupas R, Delmas M, Dorioz J-M et al (2015) Assessing the impact of agricultural pressures on N and P loads and eutrophication risk. Ecol Indic 48:396–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2014.08.007
Epstein E (1994) The anomaly of silicon in plant biology. Proc Natl Acad Sci 91:11–17. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.91.1.11
Epstein E (2009) Silicon: its manifold roles in plants. Ann Appl Biol 155:155–160. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7348.2009.00343.x
Fenton O, Schulte RPO, Jordan P et al (2011) Time lag: a methodology for the estimation of vertical and horizontal travel and flushing timescales to nitrate threshold concentrations in Irish aquifers. Environ Sci Policy 14:419–431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2011.03.006
Fraysse F, Pokrovsky OS, Schott J, Meunier J-D (2009) Surface chemistry and reactivity of plant phytoliths in aqueous solutions. Chem Geol 258:197–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2008.10.003
Frings PJ, Clymans W, Fontorbe G et al (2016) The continental Si cycle and its impact on the ocean Si isotope budget. Chem Geol 425:12–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2016.01.020
Garnier J, Beusen A, Thieu V et al (2010) N:P: Si nutrient export ratios and ecological consequences in coastal seas evaluated by the ICEP approach. Glob Biogeochem Cycles 24:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GB003583
Gentry LE, David MB, Royer TV et al (2007) Phosphorus transport pathways to streams in tile-drained agricultural watersheds. J Environ Qual 36:408. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2006.0098
Georg RB, West AJ, Basu AR, Halliday AN (2009) Silicon fluxes and isotope composition of direct groundwater discharge into the Bay of Bengal and the effect on the global ocean silicon isotope budget. Earth Planet Sci Lett 283:67–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2009.03.041
Glibert PM, Burford MA (2017) Globally changing nutrient loads and harmful algal blooms. Oceanography 30:13
Godsey SE, Kirchner JW, Clow DW (2009) Concentration-discharge relationships reflect chemostatic characteristics of US catchments. Hydrol Process 23:1844–1864. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7315
Gökkaya K, Budhathoki M, Christopher SF et al (2017) Subsurface tile drained area detection using GIS and remote sensing in an agricultural watershed. Ecol Eng 108:370–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2017.06.048
Grimm NB, Chapin FS, Bierwagen B et al (2013) The impacts of climate change on ecosystem structure and function. Front Ecol Environ 11:474–482. https://doi.org/10.1890/120282
Grimvall A, Stålnacke P, Tonderski A (2000) Time scales of nutrient losses from land to sea—a European perspective. Ecol Eng 14:363–371. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-8574(99)00061-0
Guntzer F, Keller C, Meunier J-D (2012) Benefits of plant silicon for crops: a review. Agron Sustain Dev 32:201–213. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-011-0039-8
Hallama M, Pekrun C, Lambers H, Kandeler E (2019) Hidden miners—the roles of cover crops and soil microorganisms in phosphorus cycling through agroecosystems. Plant Soil 434:7–45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-018-3810-7
Hamlet AF, Byun K, Robeson SM et al (2020) Impacts of climate change on the state of Indiana: ensemble future projections based on statistical downscaling. Clim Change 163:1881–1895. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-018-2309-9
Hanrahan BR, Tank JL, Christopher SF et al (2018) Winter cover crops reduce nitrate loss in an agricultural watershed in the central U.S. Agric Ecosyst Environ 265:513–523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2018.07.004
Hanrahan BR, Tank JL, Speir SL et al (2021) Extending vegetative cover with cover crops influenced phosphorus loss from an agricultural watershed. Sci Total Environ 801:149501. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149501
Haynes RJ (2014) A contemporary overview of silicon availability in agricultural soils. J Plant Nutr Soil Sci 177:831–844. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.201400202
Haynes RJ (2017b) The nature of biogenic Si and its potential role in Si supply in agricultural soils. Agric Ecosyst Environ 245:100–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2017.04.021
Haynes RJ (2017a) Significance and role of Si in crop production. In: Advances in Agronomy. Elsevier, pp 83–166
Humborg C, Pastuszak M, Aigars J et al (2006) Decreased silica land–sea fluxes through damming in the Baltic Sea catchment – Significance of particle trapping and hydrological alterations. Biogeochemistry 77:265–281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-005-1533-3
James I, Drever (1994) The effect of land plants on weathering rates of silicate minerals. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 58(10):2325–2332. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(94)90013-2
Kaspar TC, Jaynes DB, Parkin TB, Moorman TB (2007) Rye cover crop and gamagrass strip effects on NO3 concentration and load in tile drainage. J Environ Qual 36:1503–1511
Kaspar TC, Jaynes DB, Parkin TB et al (2012) Effectiveness of oat and rye cover crops in reducing nitrate losses in drainage water. Agric Water Manag 110:25–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2012.03.010
Keller C, Guntzer F, Barboni D et al (2012) Impact of agriculture on the Si biogeochemical cycle: input from phytolith studies. Comptes Rendus Geosci 344:739–746. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crte.2012.10.004
Kilham P (1971) A hypothesis concerning silica and the freshwater planktonic diatoms. Limnol Oceanogr 16:10–18. https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.1971.16.1.0010
King KW, Fausey NR, Williams MR (2014) Effect of subsurface drainage on streamflow in an agricultural headwater watershed. J Hydrol 519:438–445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.07.035
King KW, Williams MR, Fausey NR (2015) Contributions of systematic tile drainage to watershed-scale phosphorus transport. J Environ Qual 44:486–494. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2014.04.0149
Kuznetsova A, Brockhoff PB, Christensen RHB (2017) lmerTest package: tests in linear mixed effects models. J Stat Softw. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v082.i13
Le Moal M, Pannard A, Brient L et al (2021) Is the cyanobacterial bloom composition shifting due to climate forcing or nutrient changes? Example of a shallow eutrophic reservoir. Toxins 13:351. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13050351
Lenth RV (2021) emmeans Package: Estimated marginal means, aka least-squares means. R package version 1.6.2-1. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=emmeans
Leong DNS, Donner SD, Hassan MA et al (2014) Sensitivity of stoichiometric ratios in the Mississippi River to hydrologic variability. J Geophys Res Biogeosciences 119:1049–1062. https://doi.org/10.1002/2013JG002585
Lowe RL, LaLiberte GD (2007) Benthic stream algae: distribution and structure. In: Hauer F, Lamberti G (eds) Methods in stream ecology. Elsevier, New York, pp 327–339
MacIntyre HL, Lomas MW, Cornwell J et al (2004) Mediation of benthic–pelagic coupling by microphytobenthos: an energy- and material-based model for initiation of blooms of Aureococcus anophagefferens. Harmful Algae 3:403–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2004.05.005
Maher K (2010) The dependence of chemical weathering rates on fluid residence time. Earth Planet Sci Lett 294:101–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2010.03.010
Martin-Jezequel V, Hildebrand M, Brzezinski MA (2000) Silicon metabolism in diatoms: Implications for growth. J Phycol 36:821–840. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1529-8817.2000.00019.x
Matichenkov VV, Bocharnikova EA (2001) The relationship between silicon and soil physical and chemical properties. In: Swain R, Rout GR (eds) Silicon in agriculture, 1st edn. Elsevier, New York, pp 209–219
McKay RML, Tuttle T, Reitz LA et al (2018) Early onset of a microcystin-producing cyanobacterial bloom in an agriculturally-influenced Great Lakes tributary. J Oceanol Limnol 36:1112–1125. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00343-018-7164-z
Meals DW, Dressing SA, Davenport TE (2010) Lag time in water quality response to best management practices: a review. J Environ Qual 39:85–96. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2009.0108
Meunier JD, Guntzer F, Kirman S, Keller C (2008) Terrestrial plant-Si and environmental changes. Mineral Mag 72:263–267. https://doi.org/10.1180/minmag.2008.072.1.263
Michalak AM, Anderson EJ, Beletsky D et al (2013) Record-setting algal bloom in Lake Erie caused by agricultural and meteorological trends consistent with expected future conditions. Proc Natl Acad Sci 110:6448–6452. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1216006110
Murphy J, Riley JP (1962) A modified single solution method for the determination of phosphate in natural waters. Anal Chim Acta 27:31–36
Officer C, Ryther J (1980) The possible importance of silicon in marine eutrophication. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 3:83–91. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps003083
ORSANCO (2016) Annual report 2016. Ohio River Valley Sanitation Commission (ORSANCO)
Pinardi M, Soana E, Laini A et al (2018) Soil system budgets of N, Si and P in an agricultural irrigated watershed: surplus, differential export and underlying mechanisms. Biogeochemistry 140:175–197. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-018-0484-4
Rabalais NN (2002) Nitrogen in aquatic ecosystems. AMBIO J Hum Environ 31:102–112. https://doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447-31.2.102
Rabalais NN, Díaz RJ, Levin LA et al (2010) Dynamics and distribution of natural and human-caused hypoxia. Biogeosciences 7:585–619. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-7-585-2010
Raymond PA, David MB, Saiers JE (2012) The impact of fertilization and hydrology on nitrate fluxes from Mississippi watersheds. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 4:212–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2012.04.001
Redfield AC (1963) The influence of organisms on the composition of sea water
Rousseaux C, Gregg W (2013) Interannual variation in phytoplankton primary production at a global scale. Remote Sens 6:1–19. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs6010001
Royer TV (2020) Stoichiometry of nitrogen, phosphorus, and silica loads in the Mississippi-Atchafalaya River basin reveals spatial and temporal patterns in risk for cyanobacterial blooms. Limnol Oceanogr 65:325–335. https://doi.org/10.1002/lno.11300
Royer TV, David MB, Gentry LE (2006) Timing of riverine export of nitrate and phosphorus from agricultural watersheds in Illinois: Implications for reducing nutrient loading to the Mississippi River. Environ Sci Technol 40:4126–4131. https://doi.org/10.1021/es052573n
Schelske CL, Stoermer EF (1971) Eutrophication, silica depletion, and predicted changes in algal quality in Lake Michigan. Science 173:423–424
Sinha E, Michalak AM, Balaji V (2017) Eutrophication will increase during the 21st century as a result of precipitation changes. Science 357:405–408. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aan2409
Smol JP, Stoermer EF (eds) (2010) The diatoms: applications for the environmental and earth sciences, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge; New York
Solórzano L (1969) Determination of ammonia in natural waters by the phenolhypochlorite method. Limnol Oceanogr 14:799–801. https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.1969.14.5.0799
Speir SL, Tank JL, Bieroza M et al (2021a) Storm size and hydrologic modification influence nitrate mobilization and transport in agricultural watersheds. Biogeochemistry 156:319–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-021-00847-y
Speir SL, Tank JL, Trentman MT et al (2021b) Cover crops control nitrogen and phosphorus transport from two agricultural watersheds at multiple measurement scales. Agric Ecosyst Environ. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2021.107765
Street-Perrott FA, Barker PA (2008) Biogenic silica: a neglected component of the coupled global continental biogeochemical cycles of carbon and silicon. Earth Surf Process Landf 33:1436–1457. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1712
Strock JS, Porter PM, Russelle MP (2004) Cover cropping to reduce nitrate loss through subsurface drainage in the Northern U.S. corn belt. J Environ Qual 33:1010. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2004.1010
Struyf E, Conley DJ (2012) Emerging understanding of the ecosystem silica filter. Biogeochemistry 107:9–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-011-9590-2
Struyf E, Smis A, Van Damme S et al (2010) Historical land use change has lowered terrestrial silica mobilization. Nat Commun 1:129–129. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms1128
Sultan SM (2014) Determination of silicon and silicates. In: Nollet LML, De Gelder LSP (eds) Handbook of water analysis, 3rd edn. Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton, p 24
Teubner K, Dokulil MT (2002) Ecological stoichiometry of TN:TP:SRSi in freshwaters: nutrient ratios and seasonal shifts in phytoplankton assemblages. Fundam Appl Limnol 154:625–646. https://doi.org/10.1127/archiv-hydrobiol/154/2002/625
Trentman MT, Tank JL, Royer TV et al (2020) Cover crops and precipitation influence soluble reactive phosphorus losses via tile drain discharge in an agricultural watershed. Hydrol Process. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.13870
Trentman MT, Tank JL, Shepherd HAM et al (2021) Characterizing bioavailable phosphorus concentrations in an agricultural stream during hydrologic and streambed disturbances. Biogeochemistry. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-021-00803-w
Tubana BS, Babu T, Datnoff LE (2016) A review of silicon in soils and plants and its role in US agriculture: history and future perspectives. Soil Sci. https://doi.org/10.1097/SS.0000000000000179
Turner RE, Rabalais NN, Justić D, Dortch Q (2003) Global patterns of dissolved N, P and Si in large rivers. Biogeochemistry 64:297–317
U.S. Global Change Research Program (2018) Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the united states: fourth national climate assessment, Volume II. Washington
Van Cappellen P (2003) Biomineralization and global biogeochemical cycles. Rev Mineral Geochem 54:357–381
Vandevenne F, Struyf E, Clymans W, Meire P (2012) Agricultural silica harvest: have humans created a new loop in the global silica cycle? Front Ecol Environ 10:243–248. https://doi.org/10.1890/110046
Viaroli P, Nizzoli D, Pinardi M et al (2013) Factors affecting dissolved silica concentrations, and DSi and DIN stoichiometry in a human impacted watershed (Po River, Italy). SILICON 5:101–114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12633-012-9137-8
Vidon P, Cuadra PE (2011) Phosphorus dynamics in tile-drain flow during storms in the US Midwest. Agric Water Manag 98:532–540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2010.09.010
Williams MR, Buda AR, Elliott HA et al (2014) Groundwater flow path dynamics and nitrogen transport potential in the riparian zone of an agricultural headwater catchment. J Hydrol 511:870–879. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.02.033
Williams MR, King KW, Fausey NR (2015) Contribution of tile drains to basin discharge and nitrogen export in a headwater agricultural watershed. Agric Water Manage 158:42–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2015.04.009
Wörman A, Packman AI, Johansson H, Jonsson K (2002) Effect of flow-induced exchange in hyporheic zones on longitudinal transport of solutes in streams and rivers. Water Res Res 38(1):2-1–2-15. https://doi.org/10.1029/2001WR000769
Acknowledgements
We thank the Jasper County and Kosciusko County Soil and Water Conservation Districts for help implementing the project, and the farmers and landowners in KDW and SDW for access to sampling sites. Numerous students contributed to field sampling and laboratory analyses including Nina Jung, Victoria Anderson, and Laura Gerber. We acknowledge the Myaamia (Miami), Kaskaskia, Bodwéwadmik (Potawatomi), Peoria, and Kiikaapoi (Kickapoo) People, Indigenous communities native to the KDW and SDW region. Acknowledging the history of these lands is simply a first step in identifying land stewardship and research practices that better connect the land to the people who rely on it.
Funding
This research was funded by grants from the U.S. Department of Agriculture Regional Conservation Partnership Program, the Walton Family Foundation, and the Indiana Soybean Alliance.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent to publication
All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Samantha R. Weintraub-Leff.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sethna, L.R., Royer, T.V., Speir, S.L. et al. Silicon concentrations and stoichiometry in two agricultural watersheds: implications for management and downstream water quality. Biogeochemistry 159, 265–282 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-022-00927-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-022-00927-7