Abstract
Debris flows can develop into mega catastrophes in semi-arid regions when the source materials come from landslides, and both snowmelt and precipitation are involved in increasing water discharge. In such environments, the formation of large-scale debris flows exhibits a distinguishable pattern, in which a multi-fold lower triggering rainfall threshold holds compared to humid regions. Previous research mainly focuses on mechanisms in humid environments or neglects variations across aridity classes. In this study, the formation and evolutionary mechanism of a debris flow occurring in a semi-arid context is investigated via field surveys, granularity measurement, terrain and climate analyses, and snow cover change detection. By examining the July 22, 2021, Xiao Dongsuo debris flow at Amidongsuo Park in the Qilian Ranges on the northeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau, the mechanism of debris flows in semi-arid regions is revealed. The research finds that the large debris flow, whose course erosion scales up the disaster by 0.12 million m3, is primarily supplied by landslide deposits of 1.16 million m3. The debris flow is empowered by the integrated flow of extreme precipitation and extreme heat-stimulated snowmelt. However, the precipitation required to trigger the debris flow is much lower than that of precipitation-dominated ones and those in humid regions. In semi-arid mountains, prolonged extreme heat tends to increase soil moisture in areas covered by snow or permafrost. This reduces slope stability and induces slope failures, amplifying the disaster magnitude and raising disaster risks through extended deterioration. Hence, this study inspects the failure mechanism associated with debris flows in semi-arid regions for a more comprehensive understanding to constitute viable control plans for analogous disasters.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The permafrost data is provided by National Tibetan Plateau Data Center (http://data.tpdc.ac.cn). The ALOS PALSAR data are accessed through ASF DAAC in 2022 (https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.5067/Z97HFCNKR6VA), which includes Material © JAXA/METI 2007.
References
Anderson RS (1998) Near-surface thermal profiles in alpine bedrock: implications for the frost weathering of rock. Arct Alp Res 30:362–372. https://doi.org/10.2307/1552008
Arenson LU, Harrington JS, Koenig CEM, Wainstein PA (2022) Mountain permafrost hydrology—a practical review following studies from the Andes. Geosciences 12:48. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences12020048
Askaripour M, Saeidi A, Mercier-Langevin P, Rouleau A (2022) A review of relationship between texture characteristic and mechanical properties of rock. Geotechnics 2:262–296. https://doi.org/10.3390/geotechnics2010012
Battista G, Schlunegger F, Burlando P, Molnar P (2022) Sediment supply effects in hydrology-sediment modeling of an alpine basin. Water Resour Res 58:e2020WR029408. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020WR029408
Blanckaert K (2010) Topographic steering, flow recirculation, velocity redistribution, and bed topography in sharp meander bends. Water Resour Res 46:W09506. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009WR008303
Bovis MJ, Jakob M (1999) The role of debris supply conditions in predicting debris flow activity. Earth Surf Proc Land 24:1039–1054. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9837(199910)24:11%3c1039::AID-ESP29%3e3.0.CO;2-U
Caine N (1980) The rainfall intensity: duration control of shallow landslides and debris flows. Geogr Ann Ser B 62:23–27. https://doi.org/10.2307/520449
Camacho Suarez V, Okello A, Wenninger J, Uhlenbrook S (2015) Understanding runoff processes in a semi-arid environment through isotope and hydrochemical hydrograph separations. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci Discuss 12:975–1015. https://doi.org/10.5194/hessd-12-975-2015
Carmichael RS (2017) Crc handbook of physical properties of rocks: Volume iii. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780203712030
Chen B, Shen B, Jiang H (2023) Shear behavior of intact granite under thermo-mechanical coupling and three-dimensional morphology of shear-formed fractures. Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical EnginEering 15:523–537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2022.04.006
Chow V (1959) Open-channel hydraulics. McGraw-Hill, New York
Coe JA, Kinner DA, Godt JW (2008) Initiation conditions for debris flows generated by runoff at Chalk Cliffs, central Colorado. Geomorphology 96:270–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.03.017
Cossart E, Braucher R, Fort M, Bourlès D, Carcaillet J (2008) Slope instability in relation to glacial debuttressing in alpine areas (upper Durance catchment, southeastern France): Evidence from field data and 10be cosmic ray exposure ages. Geomorphology 95:3–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.12.022
Dozier J (1989) Spectral signature of alpine snow cover from the landsat thematic mapper. Remote Sens Environ 28:9–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-4257(89)90101-6
Elias E, James D, Heimel S, Steele C, Steltzer H, Dott C (2021) Implications of observed changes in high mountain snow water storage, snowmelt timing and melt window. J Hydrol Reg Stud 35:100799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2021.100799
Fischer L, Huggel C, Kääb A, Haeberli W (2013) Slope failures and erosion rates on a glacierized high-mountain face under climatic changes. Earth Surf Proc Land 38:836–846. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3355
Geitner C, Mayr A, Rutzinger M, Löbmann MT, Tonin R, Zerbe S, Wellstein C, Markart G, Kohl B (2021) Shallow erosion on grassland slopes in the European Alps – geomorphological classification, spatio-temporal analysis, and understanding snow and vegetation impacts. Geomorphology 373:107446. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2020.107446
George DL, Iverson RM (2014) A depth-averaged debris-flow model that includes the effects of evolving dilatancy. II. Numerical predictions and experimental tests. Proceedings of the Royal Society A 470:20130820. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.2013.0820
Gilley JE, Elliot W, Laflen J, Simanton J (1993) Critical shear stress and critical flow rates for initiation of rilling. J Hydrol 142:251–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(93)90013-Y
Gomes MCV, Vieira BC, Salgado AAR, Braucher R (2022) Debris flow and long-term denudation rates in a tropical passive margin escarpment in South America. Geomorphology 413:108333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2022.108333
Guo X, Li Y, Cui P, Yan Y, Wang B, Zhang J (2021) Spatiotemporal characteristics of discontinuous soil failures on debris flow source slopes. Eng Geol 295:106438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2021.106438
Harkat S, Kisi O (2021) Trend analysis of precipitation records using an innovative trend methodology in a semi-arid Mediterranean environment: Cheliff watershed case (northern Algeria). Theoret Appl Climatol 144:1001–1015. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-021-03520-4
Harris C (2013) Permafrost and periglacial features | slope deposits and forms. In: Elias SA, Mock CJ (eds) Encyclopedia of quaternary science, 2nd edn. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 481–489. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-53643-3.00101-1
Henn B, Musselman KN, Lestak L, Ralph FM, Molotch NP (2020) Extreme runoff generation from atmospheric river driven snowmelt during the 2017 Oroville Dam spillways incident. Geophys Res Lett 47:e2020GL088189. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL088189
Herman F, De Doncker F, Delaney I, Prasicek G, Koppes M (2021) The impact of glaciers on mountain erosion. Nat Rev Earth Environ 2:422–435. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-021-00165-9
Hirschberg J, Sadowski Y, Michel A, McArdell BW, Molnar P (2023) Climate change impacts on rainfall-and snowmelt-triggered debris flows in an Alpine catchment. EGU General Assembly 2023, Vienna, Austria, 24-28 Apr 2023. EGU23-6460. https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu23-6460
Irannezhad M, Ahmadian S, Sadeqi A, Minaei M, Ahmadi B, Marttila H (2022) Peak spring flood discharge magnitude and timing in natural rivers across northern Finland: Long-term variability, trends, and links to climate teleconnections. Water 14:1312. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14081312
Iverson R, Logan M, LaHusen R, Berti M (2010) The perfect debris flow? Aggregated results from 28 large-scale experiments. J Geophys Res. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JF001514
Jin W, Cui P, Zhang G, Wang J, Zhang Y, Zhang P (2023) Evaluating the post-earthquake landslides sediment supply capacity for debris flows. CATENA 220:106649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2022.106649
Jones MKW, Pollard WH, Jones BM (2019) Rapid initialization of retrogressive thaw slumps in the Canadian high Arctic and their response to climate and terrain factors. Environ Res Lett 14:055006. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab12fd
Kang S, Lee SR, Vasu NN, Park JY, Lee DH (2017) Development of an initiation criterion for debris flows based on local topographic properties and applicability assessment at a regional scale. Eng Geol 230:64–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.09.017
Karl TR, Nicholls N, Ghazi A (1999) Clivar/gcos/wmo workshop on indices and indicators for climate extremes workshop summary. In: Karl TR, Nicholls N, Ghazi A (eds) Weather and climate extremes: changes, variations and a perspective from the insurance industry. Springer, Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp 3–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-9265-9_2
Kim H, Lee SW, Yune CY, Kim G (2014) Volume estimation of small scale debris flows based on observations of topographic changes using airborne lidar DEMs. J Mt Sci 11:578–591. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-013-2829-8
Korshunov AA, Doroshenko SP, Nevzorov AL (2016) The impact of freezing-thawing process on slope stability of earth structure in cold climate. Procedia Eng 143:682–688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2016.06.100
Lewkowicz AG, Way RG (2019) Extremes of summer climate trigger thousands of thermokarst landslides in a high Arctic environment. Nat Commun 10:1329. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09314-7
Li Y, Yang X (2016) Stability analysis of crack slope considering nonlinearity and water pressure. KSCE J Civ Eng 20:2289–2296. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12205-015-0197-3
Li Z, Gao Y, Wang Y, Pan Y, Li J, Chen A, Wang T, Han C, Song Y, Theakstone WH (2015) Can monsoon moisture arrive in the Qilian Mountains in summer? Quatern Int 358:113–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.046
Li J, Zhou K, Liu W, Zhang Y (2018) Analysis of the effect of freeze–thaw cycles on the degradation of mechanical parameters and slope stability. Bull Eng Geol Env 77:573–580. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-017-1013-8
Liao C, Zhuang Q (2017) Quantifying the role of snowmelt in stream discharge in an Alaskan watershed: an analysis using a spatially distributed surface hydrology model. J Geophys Res Earth Surf 122:2183–2195. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JF004214
Lin P, He Z, Du J, Chen L, Zhu X, Li J (2017) Recent changes in daily climate extremes in an arid mountain region, a case study in northwestern China’s Qilian Mountains. Sci Rep. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-02345-4
Liu J, You Y, Chen X, Liu J, Chen X (2014) Characteristics and hazard prediction of large-scale debris flow of Xiaojia Gully in Yingxiu town, Sichuan province, China. Eng Geol 180:55–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2014.03.017
Maa JPY, Kwon JI, Hwang KN, Ha HK (2008) Critical bed-shear stress for cohesive sediment deposition under steady flows. J Hydraul Eng 134:1767–1771. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(2008)134:12(1767)
Magnússon RÍ, Hamm A, Karsanaev SV, Limpens J, Kleijn D, Frampton A, Maximov TC, Heijmans MMPD (2022) Extremely wet summer events enhance permafrost thaw for multiple years in Siberian tundra. Nat Commun 13:1556. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-29248-x
Manning R (1891) On the flow of water in open channels and pipes. Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland 20:161–207
McMillan A, Powell J (1999) Bgs rock classification scheme. Volume 4, classification of artificial (man-made) ground and natural superficial deposits: applications to geological maps and datasets in the UK. https://pubs.bgs.ac.uk/publications.html?pubID=B04066. Accessed 19 May 2023
Moreiras SM, Sepúlveda SA, Correas-González M, Lauro C, Vergara I, Jeanneret P, Junquera-Torrado S, Cuevas JG, Maldonado A, Antinao JL, Lara M (2021) Debris flows occurrence in the semiarid central Andes under climate change scenario. Geosciences 11:43. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11020043
Mueller JE (1968) An introduction to the hydraulic and topographic sinuosity indexes. Ann Assoc Am Geogr 58:371–385. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.1968.tb00650.x
Muñoz Sabater J (2019) ERA5-land monthly averaged data from 1950 to present. Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Climate Data Store (CDS). https://doi.org/10.24381/cds.68d2bb30. Accessed 19 July 2023 from https://cds.climate.copernicus.eu
Myhre G, Alterskjær K, Stjern CW, Hodnebrog Ø, Marelle L, Samset BH, Sillmann J, Schaller N, Fischer E, Schulz M, Stohl A (2019) Frequency of extreme precipitation increases extensively with event rareness under global warming. Sci Rep 9:16063. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-52277-4
Neely AB, DiBiase RA (2023) Sediment controls on the transition from debris flow to fluvial channels in steep mountain ranges. Earth Surf Proc Land. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.5553
Ouyang C, Wang Z, An H, Liu X, Wang D (2019) An example of a hazard and risk assessment for debris flows—a case study of Niwan Gully, Wudu, China. Eng Geol 263:105351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2019.105351
Ozturk U, Wendi D, Crisologo I, Riemer A, Agarwal A, Vogel K, López-Tarazón JA, Korup O (2018) Rare flash floods and debris flows in southern Germany. Sci Total Environ 626:941–952. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.172
Pan G, Wang L, Zhang W (2013) Tectonic map and guide of Tibet Plateau and the surrounding region. Geology Press, Beijing
Papa M, Egashira S, Itoh T (2004) Critical conditions of bed sediment entrainment due to debris flow. Nat Hazard 4:469–474. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-4-469-2004
Rahimi A, Rahardjo H, Leong EC (2011) Effect of antecedent rainfall patterns on rainfall-induced slope failure. J Geotech Geoenvironmental Eng 137:483–491. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000451
Reaney SM, Bracken LJ, Kirkby MJ (2014) The importance of surface controls on overland flow connectivity in semi-arid environments: results from a numerical experimental approach. Hydrol Process 28:2116–2128. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.9769
Ren D (2014) The devastating Zhouqu storm-triggered debris flow of August 2010: likely causes and possible trends in a future warming climate. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 119:3643–3662. https://doi.org/10.1002/2013JD020881
Ruan H, Chen H, Li Y, Chen J, Li H (2021) Study on the downcutting rate of a debris flow dam based on grain-size distribution. Geomorphology 391:107891. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2021.107891
Saft M, Western AW, Zhang L, Peel MC, Potter NJ (2015) The influence of multiyear drought on the annual rainfall-runoff relationship: an Australian perspective. Water Resour Res 51:2444–2463. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014WR015348
Scorpio V, Cavalli M, Steger S, Crema S, Marra F, Zaramella M, Borga M, Marchi L, Comiti F (2022) Storm characteristics dictate sediment dynamics and geomorphic changes in mountain channels: a case study in the Italian Alps. Geomorphology 403:108173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2022.108173
Sheng Y (2020) Map of permafrost distribution in the Qilian mountains. National Tibetan Plateau / Third Pole Environment Data Center. https://doi.org/10.11888/Geocry.tpdc.270456. https://cstr.cn/18406.11.Geocry.tpdc.270456
Si K, Cui Z, Peng R, Zhao L, Zhao Y (2021) Crack propagation process and seismogenic mechanisms of rock due to the influence of freezing and thawing. Appl Sci 11:9601. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11209601
Smith SL, O’Neill HB, Isaksen K, Noetzli J, Romanovsky VE (2022) The changing thermal state of permafrost. Nat Rev Earth Environ 3:10–23. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-021-00240-1
Sohn YK (2000) Coarse-grained debris-flow deposits in the Miocene fan deltas, SE Korea: a scaling analysis. Sed Geol 130:45–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0037-0738(99)00099-8
Stanislawski LV, Kronenfeld BJ, Buttenfield BP, Shavers EJ (2023) At what scales does a river meander? Scale-specific sinuosity (s3) metric for quantifying stream meander size distribution. Geomorphology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2023.108734
Stanistreet IG, Cairncross B, McCarthy TS (1993) Low sinuosity and meandering bedload rivers of the Okavango fan: channel confinement by vegetated levées without fine sediment. Sed Geol 85:135–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/0037-0738(93)90079-K
Stoffel M, Mendlik T, Schneuwly-Bollschweiler M, Gobiet A (2014) Possible impacts of climate change on debris-flow activity in the Swiss Alps. Clim Change 122:141–155. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-013-0993-z
Stolle A, Langer M, Blöthe JH, Korup O (2015) On predicting debris flows in arid mountain belts. Glob Planet Change 126:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2014.12.005
Sun W, Zhang T, Clow GD, Sun YH, Zhao WY, Liang BB, Fan CY, Peng XQ, Cao B (2022) Observed permafrost thawing and disappearance near the altitudinal limit of permafrost in the Qilian Mountains. Adv Clim Chang Res 13:642–650. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.accre.2022.08.004
Suresh A, Chanda A, Rahaman ZA, Kafy AA, Rahaman SN, Hossain MI, Rahman MT, Yadav G (2022) A geospatial approach in modelling the morphometric characteristics and course of Brahmaputra river using sinuosity index. Environmental and Sustainability Indicators 15:100196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indic.2022.100196
Takahashi T (1981) Debris flow. Annu Rev Fluid Mech 13:57–77. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.fl.13.010181.000421
Tian S, Shi B, Chen X (2023) Superelevation and runup height of debris flows in bends based on typical rectangular cross-sections and gravity center offset. Landslides 20:1303–1319. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-023-02036-4
Trabucco A, Zomer R (2019) Global aridity index and potential evapotranspiration (ET0) climate database v3. figshare. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.7504448.v3
U.S. Geological Survey (2017) Earthquake hazards program, advanced national seismic system (ANSS) comprehensive catalog of earthquake events and products: Various. https://doi.org/10.5066/F7MS3QZH. Accessed 29 Jun 2022 from https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/
Vergara Dal Pont I, Moreiras SM, Santibañez Ossa F, Araneo D, Ferrando F (2020) Debris flows triggered from melt of seasonal snow and ice within the active layer in the semi-arid Andes. Permafrost Periglac Process 31:57–68. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.2020
Wang J, Wang H, Jiang Y, Zhang G, Zhao B, Lei Y (2023) Geomorphic controls on debris flow activity in the paraglacial zone of the southeast Tibetan Plateau. Nat Hazards 117:917–937. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-023-05889-z
Webb RH, Magirl CS, Griffiths PG, Boyer DE (2008) Debris flows and floods in southeastern Arizona from extreme precipitation in July 2006: magnitude, frequency, and sediment delivery. U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report 2008–1274. http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2008/1274. Accessed 4 Jul 2023
Welty J, Zeng X (2021) Characteristics and causes of extreme snowmelt over the conterminous United States. Bull Am Meteor Soc 102:E1526–E1542. https://doi.org/10.1175/bams-d-20-0182.1
Wentworth CK (1922) A scale of grade and class terms for clastic sediments. J Geol 30:377–392. https://doi.org/10.1086/622910
Wilzbach MA, Cummins KW (2018) Rivers and streams: physical setting and adapted biota. In: Fath B (ed) Encyclopedia of ecology, 2nd edn. Elsevier, Oxford, pp 594–606. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.11093-0
Wohl E, Merritt DM (2008) Reach-scale channel geometry of mountain streams. Geomorphology 93:168–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.02.014
Wu W (2013) Simplified physically based model of earthen embankment breaching. J Hydraul Eng 139:837–851. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HY.1943-7900.0000741
Wu Y, Liu X, Ja Wang, Liu L, Shi P (2016) Landslide and debris flow disasters in China. In: Shi P (ed) Natural disasters in China. Springer-Verlag GmbH Berlin, Heidelberg, Berlin, pp 73–101. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-50270-9_3
Xu L, Zheng C, Ma Y (2021) Variations in precipitation extremes in the arid and semi-arid regions of China. Int J Climatol 41:1542–1554. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.6884
Yair A (2005) The control of headwater area on channel runoff in a small arid watershed. In: Parsons AJ, Abrahams AD (eds) Overland flow: Hydraulics and erosion mechanics. CRC Press, London, pp 48–62. https://doi.org/10.1201/b12648
Yan Y, Hu S, Zhou K, Jin W, Ma N, Zeng C (2023) Hazard characteristics and causes of the “7.22” 2021 debris flow in Shenshuicao Gully, Qilian Mountains. NW China Landslides 20:111–125. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-022-01992-7
Yang W, Wang Y, Webb AA, Li Z, Tian X, Han Z, Wang S, Yu P (2018) Influence of climatic and geographic factors on the spatial distribution of Qinghai spruce forests in the dryland Qilian Mountains of northwest China. Sci Total Environ 612:1007–1017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.08.180
Yang X, Jiang Y, Zhu J, Ding B, Zhang W (2023) Deformation characteristics and failure mechanism of the Moli landslide in Guoye Town, Zhouqu County. Landslides 20:789–800. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-022-02019-x
Yatsu E (1988) The nature of weathering: an introduction. Sozosha, Tokyo
Yuan X, Ye F, Fu W, Wen L (2022) Estimating the critical shear stress for incipient particle motion of a cohesive soil slope. Sci Rep 12:9736. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-13307-w
Zhang Y, Stoffel M, Liang E, Guillet S, Shao X (2019) Centennial-scale process activity in a complex landslide body in the Qilian Mountains, northeast Tibetan Plateau, China. CATENA 179:29–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2019.03.036
Zhao T, Zhou GGD, Sun Q, Crosta GB, Song D (2022) Slope erosion induced by surges of debris flow: Insights from field experiments. Landslides 19:2367–2377. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-022-01914-7
Zheng H, Shi Z, Hanley KJ, Zhou Y, Hu X (2023) Pore pressure evolution in bed sediment overridden by debris flow: a general formulation. Earth Surf Proc Land. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.5542
Zhou GGD, Li S, Song D, Choi CE, Chen X (2019) Depositional mechanisms and morphology of debris flow: physical modelling. Landslides 16:315–332. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-018-1095-9
Zhou G, Cui M, Wan J, Zhang S (2021) A review on snowmelt models: progress and prospect. Sustainability 13:11485. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132011485
Zhu H, Zhang LM, Xiao T, Li XY (2017) Enhancement of slope stability by vegetation considering uncertainties in root distribution. Comput Geotech 85:84–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2016.12.027
Zhuang JQ, Cui P, Peng JB, Hu KH, Iqbal J (2013) Initiation process of debris flows on different slopes due to surface flow and trigger-specific strategies for mitigating post-earthquake in old Beichuan County, China. Environmental Earth Sciences 68:1391–1403. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-012-1837-2
Zomer RJ, Trabucco A (2022) Version 3 of the “global aridity index and potential evapotranspiration (et0) database”: estimation of Penman-Monteith reference evapotranspiration. CGIAR-CSI GeoPortal. https://cgiarcsi.community/2019/01/24/globalaridity-index-and-potential-evapotranspiration-climate-database-v3. Accessed 23 Jun 2022
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Yan Wang from the Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resource Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences for providing climate data support and Hao Ning Liu (Sara) from Canada for proofreading the manuscript.
Funding
This study was financially supported by the Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program (STEP) (No. 2019QZKK0906) and the National Science Foundation of China (No. 42101088 and No. U21A2008).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Jiang, Z., Wang, J., Zhou, L. et al. Formation-evolutionary mechanism of large debris flow in semi-arid region, the northeastern Tibetan Plateau. Landslides (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-024-02233-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-024-02233-9