Abstract
Abundant water and unstable loess are favorable factors for initiating landslides; landslides induced by hidden layer instability in a residential area would cause marked damage. On March 27, 2021, a landslide caused by loess interlayer instability occurred in Dege County, Sichuan Province, China. In total, 20 houses were damaged, and the lives of 1100 residents were threatened. This study explores the failure mechanism of the landslide caused by loess interlayer instability through field investigation, laboratory tests, and circular slide stability analysis. The results show that (1) Dege landslide is a small thrust-type landslide caused by the instability of loess hidden under colluvium; (2) precipitation convergence by hollow landform and domestic water leakage increased the moisture content of the loess interlayer; domestic water leakage occupied 91.7%; (3) the loess interlayer zone has high porosity, strong collapsibility, and high clay mineral content, which causes softening by water; and (4) multiple water sources reduced the anti-sliding force by approximately 3.3%, and newly building load increased the sliding force by approximately 15.9%. The combination of multiple water sources and building load led to landslide failure. This study provides new insights into the hidden loess interlayer landslide in mountainous urban areas of western China and can be a reference for landslide prevention and mitigation.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
source and distribution of the water in the landslide
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The datasets used or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Bichler A, Bobrowsky P, Best M, Douma M, Hunter J, Calvert T, Burns R (2004) Three-dimensional mapping of a landslide using a multi-geophysical approach: the Quesnel Forks landslide. Landslides 1(1):29–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-003-0008-7
Chelli A, Mandrone G, Truffelli G (2006) Field investigations and monitoring as tools for modelling the Rossena castle landslide (Northern Appennines, Italy). Landslides 3(3):252–259. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-006-0046-z
Cui YJ (2016) Unsaturated railway track-bed materials. 3rd European Conference on Unsaturated Soils (E-UNSAT), Paris, FRANCE
Cui Z, Wu Y, Liu G et al (1998) On Kunlun-Yellow River tectonic movement. Sci. China Ser. D-Earth Sci. 41:592–600. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF0287874 (https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02878741)
Del Soldato M, Riquelme A, Bianchini S, Tomas R, Di Martire D, De Vita P, Moretti S, Calcaterra D (2018) Multisource data integration to investigate one century of evolution for the Agnone landslide (Molise, southern Italy). Landslides 15(11):2113–2128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-018-1015-z
Demoulin A, Glade T (2004) Recent landslide activity in Manaihan. East Belgium Landslides 1(4):305–310. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-004-0035-z
Derbyshire E (2001) Geological hazards in loess terrain, with particular reference to the loess regions of China. Earth-Sci Rev 54(1):231–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-8252(01)00050-2
Deshmukh DS, Chaube UC, Hailu AE, Gudeta DA, Kassa MT (2013) Estimation and comparision of curve numbers based on dynamic land use land cover change, observed rainfall-runoff data and land slope. J Hydrol 492:89–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.04.001
Ding H, Li Y, Yang Y, Jia X (2019) Origin and evolution of modern loess science – 1824 to 1964. J Asian Earth Sci 170:45–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2018.10.024
El Kharim Y, Bounab A, Ilias O, Hilali F, Ahniche M (2021) Landslides in the urban and suburban perimeter of Chefchaouen (Rif, Northern Morocco): inventory and case study. Nat Hazards 107(1):355–373. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-021-04586-z
Fan Z, Kulatilake P, Peng J, Che W, Li Y, Meng Z (2016) In-flight excavation of a loess slope in a centrifuge model test. Geotech Geol Eng 34(5):1577–1591. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-016-0067-x
Feng L, Zhang S, Jin Z, Zhang M, Sun P, Jia J, Chu G, Wei Hu (2021) The critical mechanics of the initiation of loess flow failure and implications for landslides. Eng Geol 288
Fredlund DG, Rahardjo H (1993) Soil mechanics for unsaturated soils. In: Fredlund DG and Rahardjo H (eds) Introduction to Unsaturated Soil Mechhanics. Wiley, New York, 1:1–19. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470172759
Geological Survey Report of the People’s Republic of China (1988) Tibet Autonomous Region Geology and Minerals Bureau (in Chinese)
Hongbing TAN, Haizhou MA, Xiying Z, Huayu LU, Jianguo W (2006) Typical geochemical elements in loess deposit in the Northeastern Tibetan Plateau and Its Paleoclimatic Implication. Acta Geol Sin 80(1):110–116. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-6724.2006.tb00800.x
Huang CC, Pang J, Su H, Yang Q, Jia Y (2007) Climatic and anthropogenic impacts on soil formation in the semiarid loess tablelands in the middle reaches of the Yellow River. China J Arid Environ 71(3):280–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2007.03.010
Jin X, Wang J, Chen B, Ren L (2003) Cenozoic depositional sequences in the piedmont of the west Kunlun and their paleogeographic and tectonic implications. J Asian Earth Sci 21:755–765. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1367-9120(02)00073-1
Kong P, Zheng Y, Fu B (2011) Cosmogenic nuclide burial ages and provenance of Late Cenozoic deposits in the Sichuan Basin: implications for Early Quaternary glaciations in east Tibet. Quat Geochronol 6:304–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quageo.2011.03.006
Lal D, Harris NBW, Sharma KK, Zhaoyan Gu, Ding L, Liu T, Dong W, Caffee MW, Jull AJT (2004) Erosion history of the Tibetan Plateau since the last interglacial: constraints from the first studies of cosmogenic 10Be from Tibetan bedrock. Earth Planet Sci Lett 217:33–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-821X(03)00600-9
Li G, Zhang B, Yu Y (2013) Geomechanics. 2nd edition. Tsinghua University Press. http://www.tup.tsinghua.edu.cn/booksCenter/book_05211803.html
Li W, Zhao B, Xu Q, Yang F, Fu H, Dai C, Wu X (2020a) Deformation characteristics and failure mechanism of a reactivated landslide in Leidashi, Sichuan, China, on August 6, 2019: an emergency investigation report. Landslides 17(6):1405–1413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-020-01367-w
Li Y, Shi W, Aydin A, Beroya-Eitner MA, Gao G (2020b) Loess genesis and worldwide distribution. Earth Sci Rev 201:102947. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.102947
Licht A, Dupont-Nivet G, Pullen A et al (2016) Resilience of the Asian atmospheric circulation shown by Paleogene dust provenance. Nat Commun 7:12390. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms12390
Liu TS, An ZS, Yuan BY, Han JM (1985) The Loess-Paleosol Sequence in China and Climatic History. Episodes 8(1) 21–28. https://doi.org/10.18814/epiiugs/1985/v8i1/003
Liu J, Xu Q, Wang S, Subramanian SS, Wang L, Qi X (2020) Formation and chemo-mechanical characteristics of weak clay interlayers between alternative mudstone and sandstone sequence of gently inclined landslides in Nanjiang, SW China. Bull Eng Geol Environ 79(9):4701–4715. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-020-01859-y
Merritt AJ, Chambers JE, Murphy W, Wilkinson PB, West LJ, Gunn DA, Meldrum PI, Kirkham M, Dixon N (2014) 3D ground model development for an active landslide in Lias mudrocks using geophysical, remote sensing and geotechnical methods. Landslides 11(4):537–550. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-013-0409-1
Mishra SK, Singh V (2003) Soil conservation service curve number (SCS-CN) methodology. Springer Science & Business Media 42:90–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-0147-1
Nie J, Pullen A, Garzione CN, Peng W, Wang Z (2018) Pre-Quaternary decoupling between Asian aridification and high dust accumulation rates. Sci Adv 4:aao6977. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aao6977
Peng J, Fan Z, Wu D, Huang Q, Wang Q, Zhuang J, Che W (2019) Landslides triggered by excavation in the loess plateau of China: a case study of Middle Pleistocene loess slopes. J Asian Earth Sci 171:246–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2018.11.014
Peranic J, Arbanas, SM, Arbanas Z (2021) Importance of the unsaturated zone in landslide reactivation on flysch slopes: observations from Valici Landslide, Croatia. Landslides. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-021-01757-8
Preuth T, Glade T, Demoulin A (2010) Stability analysis of a human-influenced landslide in eastern Belgium. Geomorphology 120(1–2):38–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.09.013
Razi P, Sumantyo JTS, Perissin D, Kuzw H, Chua MY, Panggabean GF (2018) 3D land mapping and land deformation monitoring using persistent scatterer interferometry (PSI) ALOS PALSAR: validated by geodetic GPS and UAV. IEEE Access 6:12395–12404. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2804899
Rosen AM (2008) The impact of environmental change and human land use on alluvial valleys in the Loess Plateau of China during the Middle Holocene. Geomorphology 101(1):298–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2008.05.017
Sharma R, Sharma UK, Mahajan AK (2015) Rainfall and anthropogenically accelerated mass movement in the Outer Himalaya, north of Dharamshala town, Kangra district, Himachal Pradesh: a cause of concern. J Geol Soc India 86(5):563–569. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-015-0347-8
Sorbino G, Nicotera MV (2013) Unsaturated soil mechanics in rainfall-induced flow landslides. Eng Geol 165:105–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2012.10.008
Soulis KX, Valiantzas JD (2013) Identification of the SCS-CN parameter spatial distribution using rainfall-runoff data in heterogeneous watersheds. Water Resour Manage 27(6):1737–1749. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-012-0082-5
Sun HY, Pan P, Lu Q, Wei ZL, Xie W, Zhan W (2019) A case study of a rainfall-induced landslide involving weak interlayer and its treatment using the siphon drainage method. Bull Eng Geol Environ 78(6):4063–4074. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-018-1365-8
Szymański W, Skiba M, Nikorych VA, Kuligiewicz A (2014) Nature and formation of interlayer fillings in clay minerals in Albeluvisols from the Carpathian Foothills, Poland. Geoderma 235:396–409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2014.08.001
Tapponnier P, Zhiqin Xu, Roger F, Meyer B, Arnaud N, Wittlinger G, Jingsui Y (2001) Oblique stepwise rise and growth of the Tibet Plateau. Science 294:1671–1677. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.105978
Taylor SR, McLennan SM, McCulloch MT (1983) Geochemistry of loess, continental crustal composition and crustal model ages. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 47(11):1897–1905. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(83)90206-5
Wang JJ, Liang Y, Zhang HP, Wu Y, Lin X (2014) A loess landslide induced by excavation and rainfall. Landslides 11(1):141–152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-013-0418-0
Wang Y (2004) Environmental degradation and environmental threats in China. Environ Monit Assess 90(1):161–169. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:EMAS.0000003576.36834.c9
Xing AG, Wang G, Yin YP, Jiang Y, Wang GZ, Yang SY, Dai DR, Zhu YQ, Dai JA (2014) Dynamic analysis and field investigation of a fluidized landslide in Guanling, Guizhou, China. Eng Geol 181:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2014.07.022
Xu JJ, Tang XH, Wang ZZ, Feng YF, Bian K (2020) Investigating the softening of weak interlayers during landslides using nanoindentation experiments and simulations. Eng Geol 277:105801. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2020.105801
Xu L, Dai F, Tu X, Tham LG, Zhou Y, Iqbal J (2014) Landslides in a loess platform, North-West China. Landslides 11(6):993–1005. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-013-0445-x
Yang SL, Fang XM, Shi ZT, Lehmkuhl F, Song CH, Han YX, Han WX (2010) Timing and provenance of loess in the Sichuan Basin, southwestern China. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 292(1–2):144–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.03.039
Zeng RQ, Meng XM, Zhang FY, Wang SY, Cui ZJ, Zhang MS, Zhang Y, Chen G (2016) Characterizing hydrological processes on loess slopes using electrical resistivity tomography – a case study of the Heifangtai Terrace, Northwest China. J Hydrol 541:742–753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.07.033
Zhang D, Wang G, Luo C, Chen J, Zhou Y (2009) A rapid loess flowslide triggered by irrigation in China. Landslides 6(1):55–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-008-0135-2
Zhang ZL, Wang T, Wu SR (2020) Distribution and features of landslides in the Tianshui Basin, Northwest China. J Mt Sci 17(3):686–708. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-019-5595-4
Funding
This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China [grant number U20A20110]; and the National Natural Science Foundation of China [grant number 41861134008].
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Peng, T., Chen, N., Hu, G. et al. Failure mechanism of Dege landslide in western China, March, 2021: the loess interlayer and multiple water resources. Landslides 19, 2189–2197 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-022-01910-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-022-01910-x