Abstract
Toppling is the foremost failure pattern of anaclinal rock slopes, and deep-seated toppling deformations (DSTDs) are common on high anaclinal slopes on the sides of gorges in western China. The DSTDs can develop to depths of more than 200 m, and may show distinct signs of zonal failure. Many DSTDs undergo transformation to large landslides involving rock volumes of more than 106 m3. However, the conditions for the formation and the basic evolving processes of DSTDs remain unclear. This study seeks to develop an inventory to classify the distribution, and the conditioning factors which govern the formation and deformation modes of DSTDs in western China and to analyze the effect of the geological and geomorphological variables on the toppling intensities. To this end, forty-nine DSTDs were analyzed. The results indicate that DSTDs in western China are commonly distributed along large deeply incised rivers in the southeastern margin of the Qinghai-Tibet plateau. The steep-dip anaclinal metamorphic soft or soft-hard-interbedded strata with near parallel strikes in the river channel, V-shaped deeply incised river channels, and convex slopes are favorable conditions for the formation of DSTDs in these settings. The dip angle, the gradient, and the height of most slopes which develop DSTDs are 60–90°, 30–50°, and 200–800 m, respectively. There is a highly positive relationship between the depth of toppling and the height of the slope. The toppled rock masses can be classed as extremely intense, intense, moderate, and weak toppling zones characterized by complete block detachment, tensile-shear fracture, tensile fracture, and reverse slip along foliations, respectively. Each zone corresponds to a specific range of the dip angle of the toppled strata, the aperture of the tensile cracks, the P-wave velocity, the state of rock weathering, and the degree of unloading. The extremely intense and the intense toppling zones tend to evolve into sliding failures. Overall, 94% of the DSTDs were derived from flexural toppling and 33% have developed into large landslides.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adhikary DP, Dyskin AV (2007) Modelling of progressive and instantaneous failures of foliated rock slopes. Rock Mech Rock Eng 40(4):349–362
Adhikary DP, Dyskin AV, Jewell RJ, Stewart DP (1997) A study of the mechanism of flexural toppling failure of rock slopes. Rock Mech Rock Eng 30(2):75–93
Agliardi F, Crosta G, Zanchi A (2001) Structural constraints on deep-seated slope deformation kinematics. Eng Geol 59:83–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(00)00066-1
Agliardi F, Crosta GB, Zanchi A, Ravazzi C (2009b) Onset and timing of deep-seated gravitational slope deformations in the eastern Alps, Italy. Geomorphology 103:113–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.09.015
Agliardi F, Crosta GB, Frattini P (2012) Slow rock-slope deformation. In: Clague JJ, Stead D (eds) Landslides types, mechanisms and modeling. Cambridge University Press., pp 207–221. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511740367.019
Agliardi F, Zanchi A, Crosta GB (2009a) Tectonic vs. gravitational morphostructures in the central Eastern Alps (Italy): constraints on the recent evolution of the mountain range. Tectonophysics 474:250–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2009.02.019
Alejano LR, Gómez-Márquez I, Martínez-Alegría R (2010) Analysis of a complex toppling-circular slope failure. Eng Geol 114(1–2):93–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2010.03.005
Ambrosi C, Crosta GB (2011) Valley shape influence on deformation mechanisms of rock slopes. Geological Society, London, Special Publications 351:215–233. https://doi.org/10.1144/SP351.12
Amini M, Ardestani A, Khosravi MH (2017) Stability analysis of slide-toe-toppling failure. Eng Geol 228:82–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2017.07.008
Amini M, Majdi A, Veshadi MA (2012) Stability analysis of rock slopes against block flexure toppling failure. Rock Mech Rock Eng 45(4):519–532
Arai N, Chigira M (2019) Distribution of gravitational slope deformation and deep-seated landslides controlled by thrust faults in the Shimanto accretionary complex. Eng Geol 260:105236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2019.105236
Arne D, Worley B, Wilson C, Chen SF, Foster D, Luo ZL, Liu SG, Dirks P (1997) Differential exhumation in response to episodic thrusting along the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau. Tectonophysics 280(3–4):239–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0040-1951(97)00040-1
Ashby J (1971) Sliding and toppling modes of failure in models and jointed rock slopes. M Sci. Thesis, London University, Imperial College
Aydan Ö, Kawamoto T (1992) The stability of slopes and underground openings against flexural toppling and their stabilization. Rock Mech Rock Eng 25(3):143–165. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01019709
Bovis MJ (1990) Rock-slope deformation at Affliction Creek, southern Coast Mountains, British Columbia. Can J Earth Sci 27(2):243–254
Bovis MJ, Evans SG (1996) Extensive deformations of rock slopes in southern Coast Mountains, southwest British Columbia, Canada. Eng Geol 44(1–4):163–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(96)00068-3
Břežný M, Pánek T, Braucher R, Šilhán K, Chalupa V, Lenart J, Tábořík P (2021) Old but still active: > 18 ka history of rock slope failures affecting a flysch anticline. Landslides 18:89–104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-020-01483-7
Chigira M (1992) Long-term gravitational deformation of rocks by mass rock creep. Eng Geol 32(3):157–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-7952(92)90043-X
Chigira M (2009) September 2005 rain-induced catastrophic rockslides on slopes affected by deep-seated gravitational deformations, Kyushu, southern Japan. Eng Geol 108(1–2):1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2009.03.005
Chigira M, Hariyama T, Yamasaki S (2013a) Development of deep-seated gravitational slope deformation on a shale dip-slope: observations from high-quality drill cores. Tectonophysics 605:104–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2013.04.019
Chigira M, Kiho K (1994) Deep-seated rockslide-avalanches preceded by mass rock creep of sedimentary rocks in the Akaishi Mountains, central Japan. Eng Geol 38:221–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-7952(94)90039-6
Chigira M, Tsou CY, Matsushi Y, Hiraishi N, Matsuzawa M (2013b) Topographic precursors and geological structures of deep-seated catastrophic landslides caused by Typhoon Talas. Geomorphology 201:479–493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.07.020
Clark MK, House MA, Royden LH, Burchfiel BC, Whipple KX, Zhang X, Tang W (2005) Late Cenozoic uplift of southeastern Tibet. Geology 33(6):525–528
Clark MK, Royden LH, Whipple KX, Burchfiel BC, Zhang X, Tang W (2006) Use of a regional, relict landscape to measure vertical deformation of the eastern Tibetan Plateau. J Geophys Res Earth Surf 111:F03002. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JF000294
Cossart E, Braucher V, Fort M, Bourlès DL, Carcaillet J (2008) Slope instability in relation to glacial debuttressing in alpine areas (Upper Durance catchment, southeastern France): evidence from field data and 10Be cosmic ray exposure ages. Geomorphology 95(1–2):3–26
Crosta GB (1997) Landslide, spreading, deep seated gravitational deformation: analysis, examples, problems and proposals. Geogr Fis Din Quat 19:297–313
Crosta GB, Frattini P, Agliardi F (2013) Deep seated gravitational slope deformations in the European Alps. Tectonophysics 605:13–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2013.04.028
Cruden DM (1989) Limits to common toppling. Can Geotech J 26(4):737–742. https://doi.org/10.1139/t89-085
de Freitas MH, Watters RJ (1973) Some field examples of toppling failure. Géotechnique 23(4):495–513. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1973.23.4.495
Deng Q, Zhu Z, Cui Z, Wang X (2000) Mass rock creep and landsliding on the Huangtupo slope in the reservoir area of the Three Gorges Project, Yangtze River, China. Eng Geol 58(1):67–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(00)00053-3
Dikau R, Brunsden D, Schrott L, Ibsen ML (eds) (1996) Landslide recognition: identification, movement and causes. Wiley, Chichester
Dong ML, Zhang FM, Lv JQ, Hu MJ, Li ZN (2020) Study on deformation and failure law of soft-hard rock interbedding toppling slope base on similar test. Bull Eng Geol Env 79:4625–4637. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-020-01845-4
Dramis F, Sorriso-Valvo M (1994) Deep–seated gravitational slope deformations, related landslides and tectonics. Eng Geol 38(3–4):231–243
Esposito C, Martino S, Mugnoza GS (2007) Mountain slope deformations along thrust fronts in jointed limestone: an equivalent continuum modelling approach. Geomorphology 90:55–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.01.017
Giraud A, Rochet L, Antoine P (1990) Processes of slope failure in crystallophyllian formations. Eng Geol 29(3):241–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-7952(90)90053-4
Glueer F, Loew S, Manconi A (2020) Paraglacial history and structure of the Moosfluh Landslide (1850–2016), Switzerland. Geomorphology 355:106677. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2019.02.021
Glueer F, Loew S, Manconi A, Aaron J (2019) From toppling to sliding: progressive evolution of the Moosfluh Landslide, Switzerland. J Geophys Res Earth Surf 124(12):2899–2919. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JF005019
Gong MF, Qi SW, Liu JY (2010) Engineering geological problems related to high geo-stresses at the Jinping I Hydropower Station, Southwest China. Bull Eng Geol Environ. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-010-0267-1
Goodman RE, Bray JW (1976) Toppling of Rock Slopes. Proceedings of the Specialty Conference on Rock Engineering for Foundations and Slopes 2:201–234
Gu DM, Huang D (2016) A complex rock topple-rock slide failure of an anaclinal rock slope in the Wu Gorge, Yangtze River, China. Eng Geol 208:165–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2016.04.037
Hou YL, Chigira M, Tsou CY (2014) Numerical study on deep-seated gravitational slope deformation in a shale-dominated dip slope due to river incision. Eng Geol 179:59–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2014.06.020
Huang RQ (2012) Mechanisms of large-scale landslides in China. Bull Eng Geol Env 71(1):161–170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-011-0403-6
Huang RQ, Wang YS, Wang ST, Li YS (2011) High geo-stress distribution and high geo-stress concentration area models for eastern margin of Qinghai-Tibet plateau. Sci China Technol Sci 54(Suppl. 1):154–166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11431-011-4652-1
Hungr O, Leroueil S, Picarelli L (2014) The Varnes classification of landslide types, an update. Landslides 11(2):167–194. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-013-0436-y
Hürlimann M, Ledesma A, Corominas J, Prat PC (2006) The deep-seated slope deformation at Encampadana, Andorra: representation of morphologic features by numerical modeling. Eng Geol 83:343–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2005.11.008
Hutchison B, Dugan K, Coulthard MA (2000) Analysis of flexural toppling at Australian bulk minerals Savage River Mine. In ISRM international symposium, Melbourne, Australia. International Society for Rock Mechanics. https://www.onepetro.org/conference-paper/ISRM-IS-2000-523
Lin P, Liu XL, Hu SY, Li PJ (2016) Large deformation analysis of a high steep slope relating to the Laxiwa Reservoir, China. Rock Mech Rock Eng 49:2253–2276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-016-0925-0
Liu M, Liu FZ, Huang RQ, Pei XJ (2016) Deep-seated large-scale toppling failure in metamorphic rocks: a case study of the Erguxi slope in southwest china. J Mt Sci 13(12):2094–2110
ISRM (1978) Suggested methods for the quantitative description of discontinuities in rock masses. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech Abstr 15(6):319–368
Malgot J (1977) Deep–seated gravitational slope deformations in neovolcanic mountain ranges of Slovakia. Bull Eng Geol Env 16:106–109
Margielewski W (2006) Structural control and types of movements of rock mass in anisotropic rocks: case studies in the Polish Flysch Carpathians. Geomorphology 77(1–2):47–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.01.003
Margielewski W, Urban J (2017) Gravitationally induced non-karst caves: tectonic and morphological constrains, classification, and dating; Polish Flysch Carpathians case study. Geomorphology 296:160–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2017.08.018
Martin DC (1990) Deformation of open pit mine slopes by deep seated toppling. Int J Surf Min Reclam Environ 4(4):153–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/09208119008944183
Ministry of Water Conservancy and Hydropower Planning and Design Institute (2009) Code for engineering geological investigation of water resources and hydropower (GB 50487–2008). China Planning Press, Beijing
Mohtarami E, Jafari A, Amini M (2014) Stability analysis of slopes against combined circular–toppling failure. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 67:43–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2013.12.020
Morelli S, Pazzi V, Frodella W (2018) Fanti R (2018) Kinematic reconstruction of a deep-seated gravitational slope deformation by geomorphic analyses. Geosciences 8(1):26. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences8010026
Nichol SL, Hungr O, Evans SG (2002) Large-scale brittle and ductile toppling of rock slopes. Can Geotech J 39(4):773–788. https://doi.org/10.1139/t02-027
Ning YB, Tang HM, Wang F, Zhang GC (2019a) Sensitivity analysis of toppling deformation for interbedded anti-inclined rock slopes based on the Grey relation method. Bull Eng Geol Env 78:6017–6032. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-019-01505-2
Ning YB, Tang HM, Zhang GC, Smith JV, Zhang BC, Shen PW, Chen HJ (2021) A complex rockslide developed from a deep-seated toppling failure in the upper Lancang River, Southwest China. Eng Geol 293:106329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2021.106329
Ning YB, Zhang GC, Tang HM, Shen WC, Shen PW (2019b) Process analysis of toppling failure on anti-dip rock slopes under seismic load in Southwest China. Rock Mech Rock Eng 52:4439–4455. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-019-01855-z
Ostermann M, Sanders D (2017) The Benner pass rock avalanche cluster suggests a close relation between long-term slope deformation (DSGSDs and translational rock slides) and catastrophic failure. Geomorphology 289:44–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.12.018
Pánek T, Klimeš J (2016) Temporal behaviour of deep-seated gravitational slope deformations: a review. Earth Sci Rev 156:14–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.02.007
Pánek T, Tábořík P, Klimeš J, Komárková V, Hradecký J, Šťastný M (2011) Deep-seated gravitational slope deformations in the highest parts of the Czech Flysch Carpathians: evolutionary model based on kinematic analysis, electrical imaging and trenching. Geomorphology 129:92–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.01.016
Pritchard MA, Savigny KW (1990) Numerical modelling of toppling. Can Geotech J 27(6):823–834. https://doi.org/10.1139/t90-095
Pritchard MA, Savigny KW (1991) The Heather Hill landslide: an example of a large scale toppling failure in a natural slope. Can Geotech J 28:410–422
Qi SW, Wu FQ, Yan FZ, Lan HX (2004) Mechanism of deep cracks in the left bank slope of Jinping first stage hydropower station. Eng Geol 73:129–144
Royden LH, Burchfiel BC, van der Hilst RD (2008) The geological evolution of the Tibetan Plateau. Science 321:1054–1058. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1155371
Sjöberg J (1996) Large scale slope stability in open pit mining: a review. Lulea University of Technology, Lulea
Smith JV (2015) Self-stabilization of toppling and hillside creep in layered rocks. Eng Geol 196:139–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2015.07.008
Stemberk J, Hartvich F, Blahůt J, Rybář J, Krejčí O (2017) Tectonic strain changes affecting the development of deep-seated gravitational slope deformations in the Bohemian Massif and Outer Western Carpathians. Geomorphology 289:3–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.07.004
Tapponnier P, Molnar P (1977) Active faulting and tectonics in China. J Geophys Res 82(20):2905–2930
Tapponnier P, Xu ZQ, Roger F, Meyer B, Arnaud N, Wittlinger G, Yang JS (2001) Oblique stepwise rise and growth of the Tibet Plateau. Science 294(5547):1671–1677. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.105978
Tsou CY, Chigira M, Matsushi Y, Chen SC (2014) Fluvial incision history that controlled the distribution of landslides in the Central Range of Taiwan. Geomorphology 226:175–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.08.015
Tsou CY, Chigira M, Matsushi Y, Hiraishi N, Arai N (2017) Coupling fluvial processes and landslide distribution toward geomorphological hazard assessment: a case study in a transient landscape in Japan. Landslides 14:1901–1914. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-017-0838-3
Tu GX, Deng H (2020a) Characteristics of a deep-seated flexural toppling fracture and its relations with downcutting by the Lancang River: a case study on a steeply dipping layered rock slope, Southwest China. Engineering Geology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2020.105754
Tu GX, Deng H (2020b) Formation and evolution of a successive landslide dam by the erosion of river: a case study of the Gendakan landslide dam on the Lancang River, China. Bull Eng Geol Env 79:2747–2761. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-020-01743-9
Tu GX, Deng H, Shang Q, Zhang Y, Luo XP (2020) Deep-seated large-scale toppling failure: a case study of the Lancang slope in Southwest China. Rock Mech Rock Eng. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-020-02132-0
Tu GX, Deng H, Shang Q, Zhang Y, Luo XP (2021) Effect of unloading in two directions on the formation of a deep-seated flexural toppling failure. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 142:104790
Taylor M, Yin A (2009) Active structures of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen and their relationships to earthquake distribution, contemporary strain field, and Cenozoic volcanism. Geosphere 5(3):199–214. https://doi.org/10.1130/ges00217.1
Varnes DJ (1978) Slope movement types and processes. In: Schuster RL, Krizek RJ (eds) Landslides, analysis and control, special report 176: transportation research board. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC., pp 11–33
WP/WLI-UNESCO (1993) Multilingual landslide glossary. Biotech Publishers Ltd, Richmond
Xia M, Ren GM, Li TB, Cai M, Yang TJ, Wan ZL (2019) Complex rock slope deformation at Laxiwa Hydropower Station, China: background, characterization, and mechanism. Bull Eng Geol Env 78:3323–3336. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-018-1371-x
Ye S, Li YS, Guo Q (2013) Mechanics research on rock stress and deformation of Lancang River canyon’s large-scale dumping deformation. Appl Mech Mater 353–356:318–323. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.353-356.318
Yokoyama O (2020) Evolution of uphill-facing scarps by flexural toppling of slate with high-angle faults. Geomorphology 352:106977. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2019.106977
Zerathe S, Lebourg T (2012) Evolution stages of large deep-seated landslides at the front of a subalpine meridional chain (Maritime-Alps, France). Geomorphology 138(1):390–403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.10.006
Zhang JY, Liu-Zeng J, Scherler D, Yin A, Wang W, Tang MY, Li ZF (2018) Spatiotemporal variation of late Quaternary river incision rates in southeast Tibet, constrained by dating fluvial terraces. Lithosphere 10(5):662–675. https://doi.org/10.1130/l686.1
Zhao WH, Zhang CQ, Ju NP (2021) Identification and zonation of deep-seated toppling deformation in a metamorphic rock slope. Bull Eng Geol Env. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-020-02027-y
Zheng Y, Chen CX, Liu TT, Zhang HN, Xia KZ, Liu F (2018) Study on the mechanisms of flexural toppling failure in anti-inclined rock slopes using numerical and limit equilibrium models. Eng Geol 237:116–128
Zhu C, He MC, Karakus M, Cui XB, Tao ZG (2020) Investigating toppling failure mechanism of anti-dip layered slope due to excavation by physical modelling. Rock Mech Rock Eng 53:5029–5050. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-020-02207-y
Zischinsky U (1966) On the deformation of high slopes. Proceedings of the 1st Congress of the International Society of Rock Mechanics, Lisbon, 6/11, 179–185
Funding
The research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China nos. 41672300 and 41972297.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Huang, D., Ma, H. & Huang, R. Deep-seated toppling deformations of rock slopes in western China. Landslides 19, 809–827 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-021-01829-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-021-01829-9