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Batteries and flow batteries-life cycle assessment in Indian conditions

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Abstract

The intervention of renewable energy for curbing the supply demand mismatch in power grids has projected the added advantage of having lower greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Non-depleting sources are characterised by variability and unpredictability. This necessitates the adequate design and sizing of Energy Storage Devices (ESD). This study focusses on life cycle study of three different types of storage devices, Valve Regulated Lead Acid Battery (LAB), Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP-G) Battery and Polysulphide Bromine Flow Battery (PSB). It has been concluded that the PV-VRLA system has an Energy Pay Back Time (EPBT) of 4.3 years, PV-LFP-G system having 4.56 years and PV-PSB system with a value of 8.2 years. The environmental impact of the systems is measured by the GHG emission factor expressed in kgCO2eq/kWh of energy generated. The PV-PSB system has the highest value owing to the material production and operating energy component, the values being 0.321, 0.343 and 0.70 kgCO2eq/kWh for the LAB, LFP-G and PSB, respectively. The impact of the generation mix for the present, Business as Usual (BAU) and a future Renewable Energy Intensive has also been studied. It has been concluded that emission metrics of the PSB system is more sensitive to generation mix characteristics.

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Availability of data and materials

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article (and its supplementary information files).

Abbreviations

GHG:

Greenhouse gas

ESD:

Energy storage devices

LAB:

Valve regulated lead acid battery

LFP-G:

Lithium iron phosphate battery

PSB:

Polysulphide bromine battery

PV:

Photovoltaic

EPBT:

Energy pay back time

NER:

Net energy ratio

IRENA:

International renewable energy agency

BAU:

Business as usual

RE map:

Renewable energy road map

DER:

Distributed energy resources

CSTEP:

Centre for study of science, technology and policy

LCA:

Life cycle assessment

LCI:

Life cycle inventory

LIB:

Lithium Ion battery

RES:

Renewable energy sources

ctg:

Cradle to gate

eol:

End of life

PbO:

Lead oxide

kgCO2eq:

Equivalent carbon emission (kg)

i :

Component

j :

Material

\({\text{CE}}_{{{\text{eq}}\left( {{\text{mp}},i} \right)}}\) :

Material production GHG emission for component i (kgCO2eq)

\({\text{CE}}_{{{\text{eq}}\left( {{\text{mnf}},i} \right)}}\) :

Manufacturing GHG emission for component i (kgCO2eq)

\({\text{CE}}_{{{\text{eq}}\left( {\text{tr,i}} \right)}}\) :

Transportation GHG emission for component i (kgCO2eq)

\({\text{CE}}_{{{\text{eq}}\left( {\text{oper,i}} \right)}}\) :

Operation GHG emission for component i (kgCO2eq)

\({\text{CE}}_{{{\text{eq}}\left( {\text{rec,i}} \right)}}\) :

Recycling GHG emission for component i (kgCO2eq)

\({\text{CE}}_{{{\text{eq}}\left( {{\text{eol}}} \right)}}\) :

End of life GHG emission (kgCO2eq)

\({\text{CE}}_{{{\text{eq}}\left( {{\text{ctg}}} \right)}}\) :

Cradle to gate life cycle GHG emission (kgCO2eq)

\({\text{CE}}_{{{\text{eq}}\left( {{\text{tot}}} \right)}}\) :

Total GHG emission (kgCO2eq)

\({\text{EE}}_{{\left( {\text{mp,i}} \right)}}\) :

Material production embodied energy for component i (MJ or MWh)

\({\text{EE}}_{{\left( {\text{mnf,i}} \right)}}\) :

Manufacturing embodied energy for component i (MJ or MWh)

\({\text{EE}}_{{\left( {tr,i} \right)}}\) :

Transportation embodied energy for component i (MJ or MWh)

\({\text{EE}}_{{\left( {\text{oper,i}} \right){)}}}\) :

Operation embodied energy (MJ or MWh)

\({\text{EE}}_{{\left( {\text{rec,i}} \right){)}}}\) :

Recycling embodied energy (MJ or MWh)

\({\text{EE}}_{{\left( {{\text{ctg}}} \right)}}\) :

Total cradle to gate embodied energy (MJ or MWh)

\({\text{EE}}_{{\left( {{\text{eol}}} \right)}}\) :

End of life embodied energy (MJ or MWh)

\({\text{EE}}_{{\left( {{\text{tot}}} \right)}}\) :

Total life cycle embodied energy (MJ or MWh)

EF:

Emission factor (kgCO2eq /kWh)

\({{E}}_{{{\text{pump}}}}\) :

Energy input (kWh)

LCEA:

Life cycle energy analysis

LCGEA:

Life cycle GHG emission analysis

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The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Electrical And Electronics, Muthoot Institute of Technology and Science, Ernakulam, Kerala, India

    Jani Das

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  1. Jani Das
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Correspondence to Jani Das.

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Hereby, Jani Das consciously assure that for the manuscript “Batteries and flow batteries-Life cycle assessment in Indian conditions” the following is fulfilled: This material is the authors' own original work, which has not been previously published elsewhere. The paper is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere. The paper reflects the authors' own research and analysis in a truthful and complete manner. The paper properly credits the meaningful contributions of co-authors and co-researchers. The results are appropriately placed in the context of prior and existing research. All sources used are properly disclosed (correct citation). Literally copying of text must be indicated as such by using quotation marks and giving proper reference. All authors have been personally and actively involved in substantial work leading to the paper, and will take public responsibility for its content.

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Das, J. Batteries and flow batteries-life cycle assessment in Indian conditions. Clean Techn Environ Policy 25, 1163–1177 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-022-02431-w

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