Abstract
The propulsion systems and characteristics of electric vehicles (EV) are different from that of conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV) and are considered to be environmentally friendly. It is relevant to access their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions on a life cycle perspective for a specific location. In this study, the life cycle GHG emissions of electric vehicles in terms of equivalent carbon emission (kgCO2eq) are compared with conventional vehicles for a life cycle inventory in Indian conditions. It has been concluded that there is a reduction of about 40% embodied equivalent carbon in an ICEV in comparison with an EV in Indian conditions. Vehicle emission factor has been introduced to normalize the emission value with respect to the vehicle life in km. It varies as 0.27 kgCO2eq/km and 0.24 kgCO2eq/km for an ICEV, with high value for the petrol variant. Similar values for EVs are 0.37 kgCO2eq/km, 0.34 kgCO2eq/km and 0.32 kgCO2eq/km, with highest value for LFP and the least for LMO variants. The study concludes that the high value of emission parameters for EVs in comparison with ICEVs is due to the high rated battery component, emission factor due to the Indian generation mix and energy intensive manufacturing techniques. The emission footprint of EVs can be reduced by improved material production and manufacturing techniques of the vehicle components, increased penetration of renewable in the generation sector and enhanced usage of recycled components in vehicle industry.
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Abbreviations
- ICEV:
-
Internal combustion engine vehicle
- EV:
-
Electric vehicle
- LAB:
-
Valve regulated lead acid battery
- ULAB:
-
Used lead acid batteries
- NMC:
-
Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide batteries
- LFP:
-
Lithium iron phosphate batteries
- LMO:
-
Lithium manganese oxide batteries
- REmap:
-
Renewable energy roadmap
- IRENA:
-
International Renewable Energy Agency
- MnTPA:
-
Million tonnes per annum
- LMV:
-
Light motor vehicle
- LCV:
-
Light commercial vehicle
- NEDC:
-
New European Driving Cycle
- MIDC:
-
Modified Indian Driving Cycle
- CSTEP:
-
Centre for Study of Science, Technology and Policy
- ctg:
-
Cradle to grave
- wtw:
-
Well to wheel
- ctgt:
-
Cradle to gate
- PbO:
-
Lead oxide
- kgCO2eq :
-
Equivalent carbon emission (kg)
- i :
-
Component
- j :
-
Material
- \({\text{CE}}_{{{\text{eq}}({\text{mp}},i)}}\) :
-
Material production carbon emission for component i (kgCO2eq)
- \({\text{CE}}_{{{\text{eq}},j}}\) :
-
Carbon emission of material j (kgCO2eq)
- \(m_{j}\) :
-
Mass of material j in component i (kg)
- L :
-
Distance to be transported (km)
- m :
-
Mass to be transported (kg)
- c :
-
Transportation GHG emission (kgCO2eq/kg-km or kgCO2eq/ton-km)
- \({\text{CE}}_{{\text{eq(ctg)}}}\) :
-
Cradle to grave life cycle GHG emission (kgCO2eq)
- EOL:
-
End of life
- \({\text{CE}}_{{{\text{eq}}({\text{mnf}},i)}}\) :
-
Manufacturing GHG emission for component i (kgCO2eq)
- \({\text{CE}}_{{{\text{eq}}({\text{tr}},i)}}\) :
-
Transportation GHG emission for component i (kgCO2eq)
- \({\text{CE}}_{{{\text{eq}}({\text{A}})}}\) :
-
Assembly phase GHG emission (kgCO2eq)
- \({\text{CE}}_{{{\text{eq}}({\text{D}})}}\) :
-
Driving phase GHG emission (kgCO2eq)
- \({\text{CE}}_{{\text{eq(VR)}}}\) :
-
Vehicle recycling phase GHG emission (kgCO2eq)
- \({\text{CE}}_{{{\text{eq(rec)}},i}}\) :
-
Recycling GHG emission for component i (kgCO2eq)
- \({\text{CE}}_{{\text{eq(ctgt)}}}\) :
-
Total cradle to gate GHG emission (kgCO2eq)
- \({\text{CE}}_{{\text{eq(wtw)}}}\) :
-
Total well to wheel GHG emission (kgCO2eq)
- \({\text{CE}}_{{\text{eq(eol)}}}\) :
-
Total end of life GHG emission (kgCO2eq)
- \({\text{ICEV}}\_{\text{CE}}_{{\text{eq(wtw)}}}\) :
-
Well to wheel GHG emission of ICEV (gCO2eq/km)
- \({\text{ICEV}}\_{\text{CE}}_{{\text{eq(wtT)}}}\) :
-
Well to tank GHG emission of ICEV (gCO2eq/L)
- \({\text{ICEV}}\_{\text{CE}}_{{\text{eq(Ttw)}}}\) :
-
Tank to wheel GHG emission of ICEV (gCO2eq/L)
- FE:
-
Fuel efficiency of an ICEV (L/km)
- \({\text{EV}}\_{\text{CE}}_{{\text{eq(wtw)}}}\) :
-
Well to wheel GHG emission of an EV (gCO2eq/km)
- \({\text{EV}}\_{\text{CE}}_{{\text{eq(wtp)}}}\) :
-
Well to power plant GHG emission of an EV (gCO2eq/kWh)
- \({\text{EV}}\_{\text{CE}}_{{\text{eq(ptw)}}}\) :
-
Power plant to wheel GHG emission of an EV (gCO2eq/kWh)
- \({\text{CE}}_{{\text{eq(tot)}}}\) :
-
Total life cycle GHG emission (kgCO2eq)
- \(G_{e}\) :
-
Ratio of power source e in electricity mix
- EE:
-
Electric efficiency of an EV (kWh/km)
- VEF:
-
Vehicle emission factor (kgCO2eq/km)
- n :
-
Vehicle life (km
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Das, J. Comparative life cycle GHG emission analysis of conventional and electric vehicles in India. Environ Dev Sustain 24, 13294–13333 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-01990-0
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-01990-0