Abstract
Coastal forts in China were mainly built during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Their distribution from north to south along China’s coastline illustrates their use as coastal defence from foreign invasion. Despite many recent efforts to investigate and conserve coastal ruins in China, many coastal fortresses continue to undergo significant damage, which poses a major challenge to their long-term conservation. In this study, the development of structures for coastal defence is comprehensively reviewed, and their construction materials, including earth soil, bricks, natural stone, and composite materials with air lime binder and additives, are summarized. Furthermore, we focus on differences in chemical composition between European and American natural hydraulic lime and traditional Chinese hydraulic lime and note the applicability of traditional Chinese hydraulic lime in the restoration of geotechnical heritage. Detailed information about representative techniques, such as direct ramming, plate ramming, and the adobe stacking method, is also provided. In addition to the review and summary of conservation and research, two typical restoration cases conducted by the Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage (CACH) are highlighted. Although these priceless treasures are currently in a state of severe deterioration, it is gratifying to see more interdisciplinary and international attention given to studying and protecting these ancient structures.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
All datas in the current study are available from the author on reasonable request.
Change history
28 December 2023
A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-023-03536-2
References
Agapiou A, Alexakis DD, Lysandrou V, Sarris A, Cuca B, Themistocleous K, Hadjimitsis DG (2015) Impact of urban sprawl to cultural heritage monuments: the case study of Paphos area in Cyprus. J Cult Herit 16(5):671–680. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2014.12.006
Arizzi A, Cultrone G (2012) Aerial lime-based mortars blended with a pozzolanic additive and different admixtures: a mineralogical, textural and physical-mechanical study. Constr Build Mater 31:135–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.12.069
Ballas DJ (1968) An introduction to the historical geography of Han China. Prof Geogr 20(3):155–162. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0033-0124.1968.00155.x
Bao CL, Jia SJ, Fu Y, Liu AH (2014) Analysis of corrosion products on underwater iron cannon artifacts from Hainan Province Museum. Corrision Prot 35(01):83–86+90 (CNKI:SUN:FSYF.0.2014–01–024)
Bao JL, Gao S, Ge JX (2020) Coastal engineering evolution in low-lying areas and adaptation practice since the eleventh century, Jiangsu Province. China Climatic Change 162(2):799–817. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-020-02738-x
Cai AZ (2019) Analysis of the conservation and restoration of the Beihai Fortress. Chinese Cult Herit 2019(02):54–58
Chang HX (2015) The Research on the construction of Shandong coastal defence battery in the Late Qing Dynasty. Dissertation, University of Hebei Normal
Chen CY (1984) Han Dynasty China: economy, society, and state power. T’oung Pao 70(1):127–148. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853284x00053
Chen Y (1996) The effect of the autocratic monarchy of the qing dynasty on science and technology. In: Dainian F, Cohen RS (eds) Chinese studies in the history and philosophy of science and technology. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science 179. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-8717-4_26
Chen ZY (2021) The construction of Huizhou coastal defence in Ming and Qing dynasties and a brief account of its relics. J Huizhou Univ 41(1):18–25. https://doi.org/10.16778/j.cnki.1671
Chen H, Wu SQ, Chen GL, Wei YF (2012) Experimental study of lime in the conservation of a martyred tomb at Xiongjia Mound. Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Academic Conference of the Chinese Association of Cultural Heritage Conservation Technology 253–257. https://cpfd.cnki.com.cn/Article/CPFDTOTAL-ZGWA201209001041.htm
Cheong WE (1985) Wei Yuan and China’s rediscovery of the maritime world. Pac Aff 58(3):515–517. https://doi.org/10.2307/2759258
Chonlaworn P (2017) Rebel with a cause: Chinese merchant-pirates in Southeast Asia in the 16th century. The Maritime Defence of China: Ming General Qi Jiguang and Beyond 187–199. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-4163-1_11
Cole BD (2014) The history of the twenty-first-century Chinese navy. Naval War College Review 67(3):43–62. https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1292&context=nwc-review
Cornet JRB (1970) Corrosion in archaeology-In Scientific methods in medieval archaeology. University of California Press, Berkeley
Dai M, Peng C, Liu H, Wang J, Ali I, Naz I (2019) Analysis and imitation of organic Sanhetu concrete discovered in an ancient Chinese tomb of Qing Dynasty. J Archaeol Sci-Rep 26:101918. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.101918
Deng SH (1995) Government awards to students trained abroad, 1871–1911. Chinese Stud Hist 28(3–4):35–46. https://doi.org/10.2753/CSH0009-463328030435
Duane MJ (2006) Coeval biochemical and biophysical weathering processes on quaternary sandstone terraces South of Rabat (Temara). Northwest Morocco Earth Surf Proc Land 31(9):1115–1128. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1313
Elsen, J, Van Balen, K, Mertens, G (2012) Hydraulicity in historic lime mortars: a review. Historic mortars: characterisation, assessment and repair, 125–139. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4635-0_10
Fang K (2022) Key issues relating to the history of China’s maritime borderland. J Ocean Univ China (Soc Sci) 1:19–31. https://doi.org/10.16497/j.cnki.1672-335X.202201002
Finley MI (1971) Archaeology and history. Daedalus 125–155. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511814211.010
Franke H (2013) Siege and defence of towns in medieval China Chinese Ways in Warfare. Harvard University Press, pp 151–201. https://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674182059.c5
Gao XS (2005) A review of research on the history of Chinese Maritime Defence. Military Hist Res 4:176–185. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1009-3451.2005.04.027
Gerritsen A (2020) The blue frontier: maritime vision and power in the Qing Empire, by Ronald C. Po the English Historical Rev 135(574):691–692. https://doi.org/10.1093/ehr/ceaa100
Graff DA (1997) Cultural realism: strategic culture and grand strategy in Chinese history. China Rev Int 4(2):450–453. https://doi.org/10.1353/cri.1997.0109
Gualtieri AF, Viani A, Montanari C (2006) Quantitative phase analysis of hydraulic limes using the Rietveld method. Cem Concr Res 36(2):401–406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2005.02.001
Guangdong Provincial Bureau of Cultural Relics (2014) Survey and research on the remains of Ming and Qing dynasty sea defense in Guangdong. Shanghai ancient books, Shanghai
Guo QH (2000) Tile and brick making in China: a study of the “Yingzao Fashi.” Constr Hist 16:3–11. https://doi.org/10.2307/41613810
Guo HQ, Zhu XX (2012) Humen defence system in the Qing dynasty and the First Opium War. J Guangzhou Univ (soc Sci Edit) 11(12):76–83
Higgins RL (1981) Piracy and coastal defence in the Ming period, government response to coastal disturbances 1523–1549. Dissertation, University of Minnesota.
Hu YW (2020) Application and development of construction technology of raw soil materials. J Phys: Conf S 1649:012038. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1649/1/012038
Hu WJ, Liu XB, Fang SQ, Chen XQ, Gu WF, Wei QL (2022) Research on the building materials of adobe house in the Neolithic period at the Qingtai site, China. Archaeol. https://doi.org/10.1111/arcm.12783
ICOMOS CHINA (2015) Principles for the conservation of heritage sites in China. https://www.hhh.gov.cn/index.php/article/101.html
Ima H, Wu H, Qian LY (2016) Anti-aircraft batteries base restoration in Barcelona. Design for City 03:369–375
Jaquin PA (2008) Analysis of historic rammed earth construction. Dissertation, University of Durham
Jia H (2016) Map and introduction of river and coastal forts with canons and Ye Zugui’s thought on coastal defence. J Natl Mus of China (8):115–125. http://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/CJFDTotal-ZLBK201608012.htm
Jin F (2007) Congnition of bricklaying. Dissertation, University of Zhejiang
Jing A (2015) A history of the Great Wall of China. World Sci. https://doi.org/10.1142/z006
Kondapalli S (2000) China’s Naval Strategy Strateg Anal 23(12):2037–2056. https://doi.org/10.1080/09700160008455179
Kozlovcev P, Přikryl R (2015) Devonian micritic limestones used in the historic production of Prague hydraulic lime (‘pasta di Praga’): characterization of the raw material and experimental laboratory burning. Mater Constr 65(319):e060–e060. https://doi.org/10.3989/mc.2015.06314
Kozlovcev P, Přikryl R (2017) Compositional characteristics and experimental burning of selected Lower Palaeozoic limestones from the Prague Basin (Barrandian area, Czech Republic) suitable for the production of natural hydraulic lime. Bull Eng Geol Environ 76:21–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-016-0882-6
Lan HX, Martin CD, Hu B (2010) Effect of hetero⁃geneity of brittle rock on micromechanical extensile behavior during compression loading. J Geophys Res 115(B1):B01202. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009jb006496
Lan HX, Martin CD, Andersson JC (2013) Evolution of in situ rock mass damage induced by mechanical–thermal loading. Rock Mech Rock Eng 46(1):153–168. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-012-0248-8
Lan HX, Lv HT, Bao H, Li L, Chen WC, Guo JJ, Liu SJ (2022) Advances indegradation and instability mechanism of grotto temple rock mass. Earth Sci. https://doi.org/10.3799/dqkx.2022.307
Lee CL (2017) An analysis on the development of Ming-Qing Maritime Defence and Navy. The Maritime Defence of China. pp. 233–243, Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-4163-1_14
Li N (2009) The evolution of China’s naval strategy and capabilities: from “near coast” and “near seas” to “far seas.” Asian Secur 5(2):144–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/14799850902886567
Li JJ, Zhang BJ (2019) Why ancient Chinese people like to use organic–inorganic composite mortars?—application history and reasons of organic–inorganic mortars in ancient Chinese buildings. J Archaeol Method Th 26(2):502–536. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10816-018-9380-4
Li NS, Zhang ZG, Wang DF (2008) Primary study on the “Sanhe Tu” from the Haizi and Weizi emplacements in Tianjin Dagu site. Sci Conserv and Archaeol 20(2):46–51. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1005-1538.2008.02.009
Li L, Zhao LY, Wang JH, Li ZX (2011) Research of physical and mechanical characteristics of two traditional silicate materials in Chinese ancient buildings. Chinese J Rock Mech Eng 30(10):2120–2127. http://www.cki.com.cn/Article/CJFDTotal-YSLX201110021.htm
Li W (2014) The Research on the construction of fengtian coastal defence battery in the Late Qing Dynasty. Dissertation, University of Hebei Normal
Lin ZS, Zheng W, Hu JZ, Hu ZL (2017) Spatial morphological characteristics of the sea defence settlements in the Minjiang estuary area during the Ming dynasty. J Fuzhou Univ (Philos and Soc Sci) 31(4):12–16 (1002–3321( 2017) 04–0012–05)
Ling JM (1994) Some problems on damage mechanics of jointed rock mass. Adv in Mech 24(2):257–264. https://cpfd.cnki.com.cn/Article/CPFDTOTAL-ZGYJ199111001014.htm
Liu YS (2010) Study of the Ming and Qing Hai Phong, the fourth series. Guangdong People’s Press, Guangzhou
Liu XQ (2003) Education of Chinese Navy students in Britain after the Sino-Japanese War of 1894. J Tianjin Norm Univ (soc Sci) 6:39–43
Liu HL, Liu YP (2017) Study of Chinese Sea-river fort technology before and after the Opium War. J Dialectics Nat 39(3):14–21. https://doi.org/10.15994/j.1000-0763.2017.03.003
Liu QS, Wei L, Lei GF, Liu Q, Peng XX, Liu H (2018) Experimental study on damage strength of crack initiation and evaluation of brittle parameters of sandstone. Chinese J Geotech Eng 40(10):1782–1789. https://doi.org/10.11779/CJGE201810004
Liu QL (2000) Research of modern commercial trade building in Guangzhou. Dissertation, South China University of Technology
Liu Y (2014) Research on defence of Taiwan in late Qing dynasty. Dissertation, Wuhan University
Longley D (1991) The excavation of Castell, Porth Trefadog, a coastal promontory fort in north Wales. Mediev Archaeol 35(1):64–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/00766097.1991.11735540
Lovell J (2007) The Great Wall: China against the world, 1000 bc–ad 2000. Foreign Aff 85(3). https://doi.org/10.2307/20032024
Lu LL (2015) Investigation study of rammed-earth technology of traditional dwellings. Dissertation, Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology
Luo L, Bachagha N, Yao Y, Liu CS, Shi PL, Zhu LW, Shao J, Wang XY (2019) Identifying linear traces of the Han Dynasty Great Wall in Dunhuang using Gaofen-1 satellite remote sensing imagery and the Hough transform. Rem Sen 11(22):2711. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11222711
Maniatidis V, Walker P (2003) A review of rammed earth construction. Innovation Project “Developing Rammed Earth for UK Housing”, Natural Building Technology Group, Department of Architecture & Civil Engineering, University of Bath, 12. https://staff.bath.ac.uk/abspw/rammedearth/review.pdf
Mao HJ (2016) The Qing Empire and the Opium War. Cambridge University Press. https://assets.cambridge.org/97811070/69879/frontmatter/9781107069879_frontmatter.pdf
Moll-Murata C, Theobald U (2013) Military employment in Qing Dynasty China. In E. Zürcher (Ed.), Fighting for a living: a comparative study of military labour 1500–2000 (pp. 353–392). Amsterdam University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9789048517251.013
Muth S, De Staebler P, Schnelle M, Schneider P (2016) Ancient fortifications: a compendium of theory and practice. Oxbow Books, Oxford, p 352. http://digital.casalini.it/9781785701429 - Casalini id: 4914296
Nokandeh J, Sauer EW, Rekavandi HO, Wilkinson T, Abbasi GA, Schweninger JL, Mahmoudi M, Parker D, Fattahi M, Usher-Wilson LS, Ershadi M, Ratcliffe J, Gale R (2006) Linear barriers of Northern Iran: the Great Wall of Gorgan and the Wall of Tammishe. Iran 44(1):121–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/05786967.2006.11834684
Oltean IA, Hanson WS, Reconstructing the archaeological landscape of Southern Dobrogea: integrating imagery (2007) Remote sensing for environmental monitoring. GIS Applications, and Geology 7(6749):53–63. https://doi.org/10.1117/12.737836
Pei QQ, Guo QL, Wang XD, Zhao JZ, Zhao GJ, Luo J (2019) Evolution and characteristics of traditional building techniques for earthen architectural sites. Sci Conserv and Archaeol 31(5):1–13. https://doi.org/10.16334/j.cnki.cn31-1652/k.2019.05.001
Pei QQ (2020) Scientific cognition and stability evaluation of traditional technology for rammed earth sites. Dissertation, Lanzhou University. https://doi.org/10.27204/d.cnki.glzhu.2020.000079
Přikryl R, Šťastná A (2010) Contribution of clayey-calcareous silicite to the mechanical properties of structural mortared rubble masonry of the medieval Charles Bridge in Prague (Czech Republic). Eng Geol 115(3–4):257–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2010.06.009
Ptak R (2013) China as a sea power, 1127–1368: a preliminary survey of the maritime expansion and naval exploits of the Chinese people during the Southern Song and Yuan Periods, by JUNG-PANG L, ELLEMAN BA. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 76(2):340–342. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0041977X13000311
Rashid K, Ahmad M, Tahir MA (2018) Influence of organic agents to compressive strength of cement mortar. Constr Build Mater 175:434–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.04.177
Reddy, BVV (2022) Introduction to rammed earth. In: Compressed earth block & rammed earth structures. Springer Transactions in Civil and Environmental Engineering. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-7877-6_11
Reeder-Myers LA (2015) Cultural heritage at risk in the twenty-first century: a vulnerability assessment of coastal archaeological sites in the United States. J Isl Coast Archaeol 10(3):436–445. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564894.2015.1008074
Refait P, Génin JM (1997) The mechanisms of oxidation of ferrous hydroxychloride β-Fe2(OH)3Cl in aqueous solution: the formation of akaganeite vs goethite. Corrosion Sci 39(3):539–553. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-938X(97)86102-1
Rijian SJ (2005) Detailed drawings of foreign architectural design 6. China Architecture & Building Press, Beijing
Rojas C (2010) The Great Wall: a cultural history. Dissertation, Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1m46ggr
Shao MS, Li L, Chen WC, Liu JH (2018) Investigation and modification of two kinds of Chinese traditional lime in cultural building relics. J Cult Herit 36:118–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2018.02.018
Shen BY (1992) Study on the impermeable layer of triclinic soil in the remediation of ancient tombs. J Hydroelectric plant design 8(1):66–76 (CNKI:SUN:SDSJ.0.1992–01–013)
Shen DW, Ma LZ, Pan L, Ma QL (2009) Coatings materials used for conservation of iron relics. Paint&coat Ind 39(01):17–19. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.0253-4312.2009.01.006
Shi YL (1999) History of Chinese City building. Military Yiwen Publishing House, Beijing
Song XR, Yuan R (2010) Research on the structural performance of restored ancient earthen emplacement. J Jiangsu Univ Sci Tech (nat Sci Edit) 24(1):27–31. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1673-4807.2010.01.006
Song SW (2020) Research on defence and management of Dagu Haiphong Fortress. Dissertation, University of Hebei Normal
Soronis G (1992) The problem of durability in building design. Constr Build Mater 6(4):205–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0950-0618(92)90039-2
Sun LX (2010) Chinese Maritime Concepts Asia Eur J 8(3):327–338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10308-010-0282-7
Sun LC (2007) Southeast Asia. Southeast Asian warfare, 1300–1900. By MICHAEL W. CHARNEY. Leiden: Brill Academic Press, 2004. Pp. 319. Appendices, Illustration, Notes, Bibliography, Index. J Southeast Asian St 38(1):168–170. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022463406230996
Tan LF (2012) A research on coastal defence system in Ming Dynasty. J Nanjing For Univ (Hum Soc Sci Edit) 12(02):100–106. https://doi.org/10.16397/j.cnki.1671-1165.2012.01.005
Tang LP (2016) From castle to battery: Research on change of coastal defence engineering of Guangdong province in the early Qing dynasty. J Opium War Mus 02:79–85. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1008-7354.2016.02.010
Taylor P, Luther MB (2004) Evaluating rammed earth walls: a case study. Sol Energ 76(1–3):79–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2003.08.026
Tian ZZ, Qiushan LB, Jiangben YL (1990) Research on the protection of relics in water Part II - on the method of desalting iron vessels with alkaline solution. Sci Conserv and Archaeol 02:53–58. https://doi.org/10.16334/j.cnki.cn31-1652/k.1990.02.010
Török Á, Přikryl R (2010) Current methods and future trends in testing, durability analyses and provenance studies of natural stones used in historical monuments. Eng Geol 115(3–4):139–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2010.07.003
Turnbull S (2012a) Fighting ships of the far east (1): China and Southeast Asia 202 BC–AD 1419. Bloomsbury Publishing. https://pdfkeys.com/download/2588723-Fighting-Ships-Of-The-Far-East-1-China-And-Southeast-Asia-202-Bc-Ad-1419-China-And-Southeast-Asia-202-Bc-Ad-1419-Vol-1-New-Vanguard.pdf
Turnbull S (2012b) The Great Wall of China 221 BC–AD 1644. Bloomsbury Publishing. https://pdfkeys.com/download/2588723-Fighting-Ships-Of-The-Far-East-1-China-And-Southeast-Asia-202-Bc-Ad-1419-China-And-Southeast-Asia-202-Bc-Ad-1419-Vol-1-New-Vanguard.pdf
Uchida E, Ogawa Y, Maeda N, Nakagawa T (2000) Deterioration of stone materials in the Angkor Monuments. Cambodia Eng Geol 55(1/2):101–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0013-7952(99)00110-6
Válek J, Van Halem E, Viani A, Pérez-Estébanez M, Ševčík R, Šašek P (2014) Determination of optimal burning temperature ranges for production of natural hydraulic limes. Constr Build Mater 66:771–780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.06.015
Van Breemen N, Finlay R, Lundström U, Jongmans AG, Giesler R, Olsson M (2000) Mycorrhizal weathering: a true case of mineral plant nutrition? Biogeochemistry 49:53–67. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006256231670
Wang L (1947) On the invention and use of gunpowder and firearms in China. Isis 37(3/4):160–178. https://doi.org/10.1086/348023
Wang YJ, Zhong Y, Dai SB (2021) Approaches to developing the technical guidelines for building conservation and restoration in the historic centre of Macao. Herit Architect 3:10. https://doi.org/10.19673/j.cnki.ha.2021.03.013
Wang L, Wang Y, Yang XY, Wang C, Li CH, Cui SK, Pan J (2022) Analysis and prevention of fungal deterioration on the surface and in the storage environment of bricks unearthed from the mausoleum of Dingtao King. Microbiol China 49(07):2515–2526. https://doi.org/10.13344/j.microbiol.china.211164
Wang SH (2021a) The Silk Roads: a case study in serial transboundary protection and management of cultural heritage. Dissertation, University of College London. https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10120562
Wang Q (2021b) The Ancient Chinese thoughts on military geography. In: Jiang X (eds) The studies of heaven and earth in Ancient China. History of Science and Technology in China. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-7841-0_11
Weizman E (2006) The architecture of Ariel Sharon. Third Text 20(3–4):337–353. https://doi.org/10.1080/09528820600900745
Wu ZQ (2014) On The Late-Qing Naval Forces of Beiyang, Nanyang, Fujian and Guangdong. Palace Mus J 01:63–82. https://doi.org/10.16319/j.cnki.0452-7402.2014.01.004
Wu SS (2018) The modern naval fortress: an additional sea denial option for coastal states. Def Stud 18(1):76–94. https://doi.org/10.1080/14702436.2017.1416954
Wu CQ, Cai F, Zhao GT, Zheng YL, Lu HQ (2011) Impact of coastal engineering constructions on the topographic and morphological evolution of Quanzhou Bay, Fujian. China Ocean & Ocean Coast Manage 54(7):544–555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2011.04.002
Xi LF, Shi HQ (2021) The shipbuilding and shipping industry in Ancient China. The Origins of Sciences in China: Hist Sci Tech in China 1:347–398. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-7853-3_11
Xu P (2018) How to ensure the authenticity of cultural relics in the site maintenance-taking the second-phase renovation project of the Humen Fort as an example. Herit Conserv Res 3(10):5. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.2096-0913.2018.10.008
Xu YR (2021) A historical review of the Silk Road. Int J of New Dev in Eng and Soc 5(1). https://doi.org/10.25236/IJNDES.2021.050110.
Yan R, Zhang L, Yan L, Zhao M (2020) Analysis on site determination and spatial layout of ancient house, fortress-village, town and city in China based on landsenses ecology: —a case study of Yu County, Hebei Province. China Int J Sust Dev World 27(3):284–291. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504509.2020.1729273
Yang FW, Zhang BJ, Pan CC, Zeng YY (2009a) Traditional mortar represented by sticky rice lime mortar—one of the great inventions in ancient China. Sci China Ser E 52(6):1641–1647. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11431-008-0317-0
Yang SQ, Lu CH, Qu T (2009b) Investigations of crack expansion in marble having a single pre-existing hole: experiment and simulations. J China Univ of Min & Techno 38(6):774–781. https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1000-1964.2009.06.004
Yang F, Zhang B, Ma Q (2010) Study of sticky rice−lime mortar technology for the restoration of historical masonry construction. Accounts Chem Res 43(6):936–944. https://doi.org/10.1021/ar9001944
Yang XM, Xu F, Wu JH (2002) A tough shield: the history of Chinese city building. Tsinghua University Press Ltd, Beijing
You Z (2020) Fire arrow and projection firearm. In: Hua, J., Feng, L. (eds) Thirty great inventions of China. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-6525-0_29
Yuan DS, Hu LM (2019) A preliminary study on the spherical bombs (Huolei) of the Southern Song Dynasty, unearthed in Chongqing. Chinese Ann of Hist Sci Tech 3(1):44. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1461.2019.03044
Zhang H, Wan L (2010) Research on the optimal formula of “Lime-soil” for restoration of the Xiaoshi harbor fort site at Huangshan. Jiangyin. Sci Conserv and Archaeol 22(2):23–26. https://doi.org/10.16334/j.cnki.cn31-1652/k.2010.02.009
Zhang HY, Zhao TY, Wang XD (2008) Ancient Chinese geotechnical construction methods. Dunhuang Res 5:81–90. https://doi.org/10.13584/j.cnki.issn1000-4106.2008.05.001
Zhang PC, Luo K, Liao WB (2012) Study on the material and the structure of earth building in Fujian. Adv Mater Res 368–373. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.368-373.3567
Zhao LY, Li L, Li ZX, Wang JH (2011) Research on two traditional silicate materials in China’s ancient building. J Inorg Mater 26(12):1327–1334. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1077.2011.01327
Zhao H (2007) Shandong’s coast defence in the Ming and Qing dynasties. Dissertation, University of Shandong
Zheng Y, Zhang H, Zhang BJ, Yue LH (2016) A new method in detecting the sticky rice component in traditional Chinese tabia. Archaeometry 58(51):218–229. https://doi.org/10.1111/arcm.12225
Zheng C (2021) Gunpowder and firearms in Ancient China. In: Jiang X (eds) A new phase of systematic development of scientific theories in China. History of science and technology in China. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-7844-1_11
Zhou YF, Lu XC, Wang RC, Lu JJ (2008) Recent progress in the study of microbiomineralogy of feldspar. Adv Earth Sci 23(1):17–23. https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1001-8166.2008.01.003
Acknowledgements
The authors thank a professional language editing company (AJE) and acknowledge the comments and suggestions of the editor and the reviewers.
Funding
We acknowledge support from the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2019YFC1520600).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
The original online version of this article was revised: The original version of this article contains an error. The Figures 1 and 11 should be replaced according to the authors. The other elements of the figures remain the same, and interpretation of results remains unchanged.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Shao, M., Liang, X., Wang, Y. et al. An overview of some traditional materials used in linear fortification structures in coastal regions of China: implications for their analytical study and conservation. Bull Eng Geol Environ 82, 464 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-023-03477-w
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-023-03477-w