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A review of how the saffron (Crocus sativus) petal and its main constituents interact with the Nrf2 and NF-κB signaling pathways

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Abstract

The primary by-product of saffron (Crocus sativus) processing is saffron petals, which are produced in large quantities but are discarded. The saffron petals contain a variety of substances, including alkaloids, anthocyanins, flavonoids, glycosides, kaempferol, and minerals. Pharmacological investigations revealed the antibacterial, antidepressant, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, antinociceptive, antispasmodic, antitussive, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, and renoprotective properties of saffron petals, which are based on their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic effects. The nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling pathway protects against oxidative stress, carcinogenesis, and inflammation. Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-ĸB) is a protein complex involved in approximately all animal cells and participates in different biological procedures such as apoptosis, cell growth, development, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) transcription, immune response, and inflammation. The pharmacological properties of saffron and its compounds are discussed in this review, along with their associated modes of action, particularly the Nrf2 and NF-ĸB signaling pathways. Without considering a time constraint, our team conducted this review using search engines or electronic databases like PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. Saffron petals and their main constituents may have protective effects in numerous organs such as the brain, colon, heart, joints, liver, lung, and pancreas through several mechanisms, including the Nrf2/heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1)/Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1) signaling cascade, which would then result in its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiapoptotic, and therapeutic effects.

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Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.

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  1. Pharmaceutical Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran

    Mahboobeh Ghasemzadeh Rahbardar & Hossein Hosseinzadeh

  2. Department of Pharmacodynamics and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran

    Hossein Hosseinzadeh

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Hossein Hosseinzadeh rose the notion, supervised, and checked the manuscript. Mahboobeh Ghasemzadeh Rahbardar collected the data and wrote the manuscript. The authors declare that all data were generated in-house and that no paper mill was used.

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Ghasemzadeh Rahbardar, M., Hosseinzadeh, H. A review of how the saffron (Crocus sativus) petal and its main constituents interact with the Nrf2 and NF-κB signaling pathways. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Arch Pharmacol 396, 1879–1909 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00210-023-02487-5

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