Abstract
Recent advancements in energy storage along with power electronic technology have made battery energy storage systems (ESS) a feasible alternative for current power applications. Battery packs with lithium-ion (Li-ion) pouch cells are the main source of ESS. However, it is a big trouble that improper voltage and impedance of laser welding significantly affect the whole battery module during battery pack manufacturing stages, causing the cell imbalance inside and eventually resulting in a thermal runaway of the battery pack and non-durable use. Importantly, the formation of nuggets welded can be classified as good (GD) or not-good (NG) based on the labels after peeling off the flyer of the Li-ion pouch cell. Interestingly, it is usually standard practice in this industry to include substantial numbers of redundant welds to gain confidence in the structural stability of the welded component. Thus, non-destructive and low-cost detection for identifying the nuggets is absolutely necessary. An effective methodology is motivated and proposed with three procedures for the identification of laser-welded nuggets. At first, the nuggets are detected and separated from a grayscale image. Image features are extracted to train the nugget images on the advanced detector model constructed to identify the GD and NG nuggets. Second, this research develops five models for achieving this purpose of detector; one is called the nugget model developed in the convolutional neural network (CNN) technique, and the others use the transfer learning of the most popular pre-trained models (i.e., InceptionV3, EfficientNet, ResNet, and MobileNet). From the comparative studies, it was found that the ResNet (residual network) model more effectively classifies the fault nuggets with a 100% accuracy rate than the other listed models. Finally, this research has significant application contributions for battery manufacturing industries to produce highly efficient welded nugget products by overcoming the cost-ineffective problems of manual inspection; thus, it further helps this industry simultaneously reduce productive inspection time and increase the manufacturing efficiency of ESS at a lower cost without human intervention than in the past.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Not applicable.
Code availability
Not applicable.
References
Aalund R, Pecht M (2019) The use of UL 1642 impact testing for Li-ion pouch cells. IEEE Access 7:176706–176711
Adem K (2022) Impact of activation functions and number of layers on detection of exudates using circular Hough transform and convolutional neural networks. Expert Syst Appl 203:117583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2022.117583
Ahmed M, Afreen N, Ahmed M, Sameer M, Ahamed J (2023) An inception V3 approach for malware classification using machine learning and transfer learning. Int J Intell Netw 4:11–18
Alkurdy NH, Aljobouri HK, Wadi ZK (2023) Ultrasound renal stone diagnosis based on convolutional neural network and VGG16 features. Int J Electr Comput Eng (IJECE) 13(3):3440–3448
Allugunti VR (2022) Breast cancer detection based on thermographic images using machine learning and deep learning algorithms. Int J Eng Comput Sci 4(1):49–56
Baig MM, Gul IH, Baig SM, Shahzad F (2022) 2D MXenes: synthesis, properties, and electrochemical energy storage for supercapacitors – a review. J Electroanal Chem 904:115920. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelechem.2021.115920
Bansal M, Kumar M, Sachdeva M, Mittal A (2021) Transfer learning for image classification using VGG19: Caltech-101 image data set. J Ambient Intell Humaniz Comput 2021:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12652-021-03488-z
Bashir T, Ismail SA, Song Y, Irfan RM, Yang S, Zhou S, Zhao J, Gao L (2021) A review of the energy storage aspects of chemical elements for lithium-ion based batteries. Energy Mater 1(2):100019. https://doi.org/10.20517/energymater.2021.20
Bazdar E, Sameti M, Nasiri F, Haghighat F (2022) Compressed air energy storage in integrated energy systems: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 167:112701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112701
Bhattacharya S, Somayaji SRK, Gadekallu TR, Alazab M, Maddikunta PKR (2022) A review on deep learning for future smart cities. Internet Technol Lett 5(1):e187. https://doi.org/10.1002/itl2.187
Buongiorno D, Prunella M, Grossi S, Hussain SM, Rennola A, Longo N, Di Stefano G, Bevilacqua V, Brunetti A (2022) Inline defective laser weld identification by processing thermal image sequences with machine and deep learning techniques. Appl Sci 12(13):6455. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12136455
Cenggoro TW, Pardamean B (2023) A systematic literature review of machine learning application in COVID-19 medical image classification. Proc Comput Sci 216:749–756
Chen X, Zhang M, Jiang S, Gou H, Zhou P, Yang R, Shen B (2023) Energy reliability enhancement of a data center/wind hybrid DC network using superconducting magnetic energy storage. Energy 263:125622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.125622
Coca GL, Romanescu ȘC, Botez ȘM, Iftene A (2020) Crack detection system in AWS cloud using convolutional neural networks. Procedia Computer Science 176:400–409
Dai W, Li D, Zheng Y, Wang D, Tang D, Wang H, Peng Y (2022) Online quality inspection of resistance spot welding for automotive production lines. J Manuf Syst 63:354–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmsy.2022.04.00
Dejans A, Kurtov O, Van Rymenant P (2021) Acoustic emission as a tool for prediction of nugget diameter in resistance spot welding. J Manuf Process 62:7–17
Dong S, Wang P, Abbas K (2021) A survey on deep learning and its applications. Comput Sci Rev 40:100379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosrev.2021.100379
Du W, Owen RE, Jnawali A, Neville TP, Iacoviello F, Zhang Z, Liatard S, Brett DJL, Shearing PR (2022) In-situ X-ray tomographic imaging study of gas and structural evolution in a commercial Li-ion pouch cell. J Power Sources 520:230818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.230818
Fu L, Zhu J, Li W, Zhu Q, Xu B, Xie Y, Zhang Y, Hu Y, Lu J, Dang P, You J (2021) Tunnel vision optimization method for VR flood scenes based on Gaussian blur. Int J Digital Earth 14(7):821–835
Görtz J, Aouad M, Wieprecht S, Terheiden K (2022) Assessment of pumped hydropower energy storage potential along rivers and shorelines. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 165:112027. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.112027
Guo S, Wang D, Chen J, Feng Z, Guo W (2022) Predicting nugget size of resistance spot welds using infrared thermal videos with image segmentation and convolutional neural network. J Manuf Sci Eng 144(2):021009. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4051829
Hannan MA, Wali SB, Ker PJ, Abd Rahman MS, Mansor M, Ramachandaramurthy VK, Muttaqi KM, Mahlia TMI, Dong ZY (2021) Battery energy-storage system: a review of technologies, optimization objectives, constraints, approaches, and outstanding issues. J Energy Storage 42:103023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2021.103023
Han Z, Jian M, Wang GG (2022) ConvUNeXt: an efficient convolution neural network for medical image segmentation. Knowl-Based Syst 253:109512
Hayou S, Doucet A, Rousseau J (2019) On the impact of the activation function on deep neural networks training. In: Proceedings of the 36th International Conference on Machine Learning Research, Long Beach, California, USA, 9–15 June 2019, PMLR 97, pp 2672–2680. https://proceedings.mlr.press/v97/hayou19a.html. Accessed 10 Nov 2022
He K, Zhang X, Ren S, Sun J (2016) Deep residual learning for image recognition. In: Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Las Vegas, NV, USA, pp 770–778
Hinton GE, Srivastava N, Krizhevsky A, Sutskever I, Salakhutdinov RR (2012) Improving neural networks by preventing co-adaptation of feature detectors. arXiv preprint arXiv:1207.0580. https://arxiv.org/abs/1207.0580. Accessed 10 Nov 2022
Howard AG, Zhu M, Chen B, Kalenichenko D, Wang W, Weyand T, Andreetto M, Adam H (2017) Mobilenets: efficient convolutional neural networks for mobile vision applications. arXiv preprint arXiv:1704.04861. https://arxiv.org/abs/1704.04861. Accessed 10 Nov 2022
Hua L, Wang B, Wang X, He X, Guan S (2019) In-situ ultrasonic detection of resistance spot welding quality using embedded probe. J Mater Process Technol 267:205–214
Jagtap AD, Shin Y, Kawaguchi K, Karniadakis GE (2022) Deep Kronecker neural networks: a general framework for neural networks with adaptive activation functions. Neurocomputing 468:165–180
Jeong Y-S, Kim Y-T (2022) IIoT processing analysis model for improving efficiency and processing time through characteristic analysis by production product. J Digit Converg 20(4):397–404. https://doi.org/10.14400/JDC.2022.20.4.397
Joshi S, Owens JA, Shah S, Munasinghe T (2021) Analysis of preprocessing techniques, Keras Tuner, and transfer learning on cloud street image data. In: 2021 IEEE International Conference on Big Data, Orlando, FL, USA, 15–18 December 2021, pp 4165–4168
Kästner L, Ahmadi S, Jonietz F, Jung P, Caire G, Ziegler M, Lambrecht J (2021) Classification of spot-welded joints in laser thermography data using convolutional neural networks. IEEE Access 9:48303–48312
Kaya Y, Gürsoy E (2023) A MobileNet-based CNN model with a novel fine-tuning mechanism for COVID-19 infection detection. Soft Comput 27:5521–5535. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00500-022-07798-y
Kurt Z, Işık Ş, Kaya Z, Anagün Y, Koca N, Çiçek S (2023) Evaluation of EfficientNet models for COVID-19 detection using lung parenchyma. Neural Comput Appl 35:12121–12132. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00521-023-08344-z
Li J, Sun H, Li J (2023) Beyond confusion matrix: learning from multiple annotators with awareness of instance features. Mach Learn 112(3):1053–1075
Liu S, Tian G, Xu Y (2019) A novel scene classification model combining ResNet based transfer learning and data augmentation with a filter. Neurocomputing 338:191–206
Li W, Huang R, Li J, Liao Y, Chen Z, He G, Yan R, Gryllias K (2022) A perspective survey on deep transfer learning for fault diagnosis in industrial scenarios: theories, applications and challenges. Mech Syst Signal Process 167:108487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2021.108487
Li Y, Li K, Liu X, Wang Y, Zhang L (2021) Lithium-ion battery capacity estimation—a pruned convolutional neural network approach assisted with transfer learning. Appl Energy 285:116410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.116410
Li Y, Zhang J, Chen Q, Xia X, Chen M (2021) Emerging of heterostructure materials in energy storage: a review. Adv Mater 33(27):2100855. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202100855
Maxwell AE, Warner TA, Guillén LA (2021) Accuracy assessment in convolutional neural network-based deep learning remote sensing studies—Part 1: literature review. Remote Sensing 13(13):2450. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132450
Mehmood M, Shahzad A, Zafar B, Shabbir A, Ali N (2022) Remote sensing image classification: a comprehensive review and applications. Math Probl Eng 2022:5880959 (https://www.hindawi.com/journals/mpe/2022/5880959/)
Mohammad N, Muad AM, Ahmad R, Yusof MYPM (2022) Accuracy of advanced deep learning with tensorflow and keras for classifying teeth developmental stages in digital panoramic imaging. BMC Med Imaging 22(1):66. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12880-022-00794-6
Mullett G (2022) Industry 4.0 or the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) - its future impact on two-year engineering technology education. In: 2022 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition, Minneapolis, Minnesota, Paper ID #38097. https://peer.asee.org/41831. Accessed 14 Nov 2022
Naseri H, Mehrdad V (2023) Novel CNN with investigation on accuracy by modifying stride, padding, kernel size and filter numbers. Multimed Tools Appl 82:23673–23691. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-023-14603-x
Parisi L, Neagu D, Ma R, Campean F (2022) Quantum ReLU activation for convolutional neural networks to improve diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease and COVID-19. Expert Syst Appl 187:115892. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2021.115892
Park J, Cho S, Qi M, Noh W, Lee I, Moon I (2021) Liquid air energy storage coupled with liquefied natural gas cold energy: focus on efficiency, energy capacity, and flexibility. Energy 216:119308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.119308
Pires R, Avila S, Wainer J, Valle E, Abramoff MD, Rocha A (2019) A data-driven approach to referable diabetic retinopathy detection. Artif Intell Med 96:93–106
Rakesh S, Raghuraman S, Venkatraman R (2023) Experimental investigation on the effect of laser welding parameters for P91 steel welding with varying shielding gas using Box-Behnken design methodology. Arab J Sci Eng 48:2715–2735
Ranjit MP, Ganapathy G, Sridhar K, Arumugham V (2019) Efficient deep learning hyperparameter tuning using cloud infrastructure: intelligent distributed hyperparameter tuning with Bayesian optimization in the cloud. In: 2019 IEEE 12th International Conference on Cloud Computing (CLOUD), Milan, Italy, 08–13 July 2019, pp 520–522
Sarvamangala DR, Kulkarni RV (2022) Convolutional neural networks in medical image understanding: a survey. Evol Intel 15(1):1–22
Shamrat FJM, Azam S, Karim A, Islam R, Tasnim Z, Ghosh P, De Boer F (2022) LungNet22: a fine-tuned model for multiclass classification and prediction of lung disease using X-ray images. Journal of Personalized Medicine 12(5):680. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm12050680
Shi J, Qin M, Aftab W, Zou R (2021) Flexible phase change materials for thermal energy storage. Energy Storage Mater 41:321–342
Skourt BA, El Hassani A, Majda A (2022) Mixed-pooling-dropout for convolutional neural network regularization. J King Saud Univ –Comput Inf Sci 34(8):4756–4762
Sohail S, Fan Z, Gu X, Sabrina F (2022) Multi-tiered artificial neural networks model for intrusion detection in smart homes. Intell Syst Appl 16:200152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswa.2022.200152
Solanki A, Pandey S (2022) Music instrument recognition using deep convolutional neural networks. Int J Inf Technol 14(3):1659–1668
Solatidehkordi Z, Ramesh J, Al-Ali AR, Osman A, Shaaban M (2023) An IoT deep learning-based home appliances management and classification system. Energy Rep 9:503–509
Szegedy C, Vanhoucke V, Ioffe S, Shlens J, Wojna Z (2016) Rethinking the inception architecture for computer vision. In: Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Las Vegas, NV, USA, pp 2818–2826
Tan KM, Babu TS, Ramachandaramurthy VK, Kasinathan P, Solanki SG, Raveendran SK (2021) Empowering smart grid: a comprehensive review of energy storage technology and application with renewable energy integration. J Energy Storage 39:102591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2021.102591
Tan M, Le Q (2019) Efficientnet: rethinking model scaling for convolutional neural networks. In: Proceedings of the 36th International Conference on Machine Learning, ICML 2019, Long Beach, 9–15 June 2019, pp 6105–6114. http://proceedings.mlr.press/v97/tan19a.html. Accessed 14 Nov 2022
Tasci B (2023) Automated ischemic acute infarction detection using pre-trained CNN models’ deep features. Biomed Signal Process Control 82:104603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bspc.2023.104603
Theissler A, Thomas M, Burch M, Gerschner F (2022) ConfusionVis: comparative evaluation and selection of multi-class classifiers based on confusion matrices. Knowl-Based Syst 247:108651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.knosys.2022.108651
Wang J, Zhang S, Hu X (2021) A fault diagnosis method for lithium-ion battery packs using improved RBF neural network. Front Energy Res 9:702139. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2021.702139
Wang Y, Jia Y, Tian Y, Xiao J (2022) Deep reinforcement learning with the confusion-matrix-based dynamic reward function for customer credit scoring. Expert Syst Appl 200:117013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2022.117013
Wu Z, Li Q, Xu Z (2022) Laser welding multimodel quality forecast method based on dynamic geometric features of the molten pool. 3D Printing Additive Manuf. https://doi.org/10.1089/3dp.2021.0252
Yang J, Wu C, You T, Wang D, Li Y, Shang C, Shen Q (2023) Hierarchical spatio-spectral fusion for hyperspectral image super resolution via sparse representation and pre-trained deep model. Knowl-Based Syst 260:110170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.knosys.2022.110170
Yan Z, Liu H, Li T, Li J, Wang Y (2022) Two dimensional correlation spectroscopy combined with ResNet: efficient method to identify bolete species compared to traditional machine learning. Lwt 162:113490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2022.113490
Yao X, Wang X, Wang SH, Zhang YD (2022) A comprehensive survey on convolutional neural network in medical image analysis. Multimed Tools Appl 81(29):41361–41405
Young MT, Hinkle JD, Kannan R, Ramanathan A (2020) Distributed Bayesian optimization of deep reinforcement learning algorithms. J Parallel Distr Comput 139:43–52
You Z, Gao H, Li S, Guo L, Liu Y, Li J (2022) Multiple activation functions and data augmentation based light weight network for in-situ tool condition monitoring. IEEE Trans Industr Electron 69(12):13656–13664
Yu H, Sun H, Tao J, Qin C, Xiao D, Jin Y, Liu C (2023) A multi-stage data augmentation and AD-ResNet-based method for EPB utilization factor prediction. Autom Constr 147:104734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2022.104734
Zhang H, Pang J, Wang R, Li X, Fang Y, Wang J, Chen S, Lu S (2023) Unveiling the relationship between micro characteristics of particles and electrode performance in a 60 Ah high-energy-density Li-ion pouch cell. Electrochim Acta 437:141330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2022.141330
Zhang H, Sun C (2021) Cost-effective iron-based aqueous redox flow batteries for large-scale energy storage application: a review. J Power Sources 493:229445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.229445
Zhou K, Yao P (2019) Overview of recent advances of process analysis and quality control in resistance spot welding. Mech Syst Signal Process 124:1701–2198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2019.01.041
Zhou M, Hu L, Chen S, Zhao X (2021) Different mechanical-electrochemical coupled failure mechanism and safety evaluation of lithium-ion pouch cells under dynamic and quasi-static mechanical abuse. J Power Sources 497:229897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.229897
Acknowledgements
The authors sincerely thank the Editor-in-Chief and the anonymous referees for their useful comments and suggestions. Simultaneously, the National Science and Technology Council of Taiwan for grant number NSTC 111-2221-E-167-036-MY2 is gratefully acknowledged for its support to this study.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Y-SC: investigation, visualization, writing—review and editing.
J-RC: conceptualization, methodology, supervision, investigation, writing (review and editing), visualization.
AM: conceptualization, methodology, writing (original draft), visualization.
F-CK: conceptualization, supervision, writing (review and editing), visualization.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing Interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Chen, YS., Chang, JR., Mohammad, A. et al. Industry applications of identifying spot laser-welded nugget for automatic ESS manufacturing process. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 130, 2705–2729 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-023-12854-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-023-12854-4