Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Stress: Concepts, Models, and Measures

  • Reference work entry
  • First Online:
Handbook of Psychocardiology

  • 2608 Accesses

Abstract

Most people harbor some perception of the word “stress.” When one hears someone mention that they are “under a lot of stress,” one has a certain idea of what they mean and experience. Indeed, the word “stress” infuses everyday conversations, providing a term with rich subtexts that explain innumerable problems, ailments, and illnesses of unknown origins. Links between hypertension and stress have for many years constituted the archetypical example of the causal relation between physiological (or clinical) and psychological phenomena. Stressors, both mental and environmental, are today readily identified and reproduced, and one of the most active areas in psychosomatic research has been the investigation of cardiovascular reactivity to mental stress. This chapter addresses the development of various concepts of stress ranging from those of the ancient Greeks to today, as well as how to operationalize and measure stress. Furthermore, the chapter describes models of stress development and how to understand the role of stress in association with health. In this regard, the chapter also focuses on the role of coping and coping resources that influence the stress-health relationship. At the end of the chapter, stress is demonstrably linked to the development of coronary heart disease (CHD).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 599.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 799.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abela, J. R. Z., Webb, C. A., Wagner, C., Ho, M. R., & Adams, P. (2006). The role of self-criticism, dependency, and hassles in the course of depressive illness: A multiwave longitudinal study. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 328–338.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Antonovsky, A. (1987). Unraveling the mystery of health. How people manage stress and stay well. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bagley, C. (1993). Development of an adolescent stress scale for use by school counsellors. School Psychology International, 13, 31–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Balog, P., Janszky, I., Leineweber, C., Blom, M., Wamala, S. P., & Orth-Gomer, K. (2003). Depressive symptoms in relation to marital and work stress in women with and without coronary heart disease. The Stockholm Female Coronary Risk Study. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 54, 113–119.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brannon, L., & Feist, J. (2008). Health psychology. An introduction to behavior and health. San Fransisco: Wadsworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brannon, L., & Feist, J. (2007). Health psychology. An introduction to behavior and health (6th ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brezinka, V., & Kittel, F. (1995). Psychological factors of coronary heart disease in women: A review. Social Science and Medicine, 42, 1351–1365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buddeberg-Fischer, B., Klaghofer, R., & Schnyder, U. (2001). Sense of coherence in adolescents. Sozial – und Präventivmedizin, 46, 404–410.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, D. G., Davenport, S. C., & Mazanov, J. (2007). Profiles of adolescent stress: The development of the adolescent stress questionnaire. Journal of Adolescence, 30, 393–416.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caltabiano, M. L., Sarafino, E. P., & Byrne, D. (2008). Health psychology. Biopsychosocial interactions. Singapore: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cannon, W. (1932). The Wisdom of the Body. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, C. (1997). Assessment of major life events for Hong Kong adolescents: The Chinese Adolescent Life Event Scale. American Journal of Community Psychology, 25, 17–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., Kamarack, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 385–396.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, D. A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Girgus, J., & Paul, G. (2006). Stress exposure and stress generation in child and adolescent depression: A latent trait-state-error approach to longitudinal analyses. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 40–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Compas, B. E., Davis, G. E., Forsythe, C. J., & Wagner, B. M. (1987). Assessment of major and daily stressful events during adolescence: The Adolescent Perceived Event Scale. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 534–541.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Compas, B. E., & Reeslund, K. L. (2009). Processes of risk and resilience during adolescence. In R. M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (3rd ed., pp. 561–588). New Jersey: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delahaij, R., Gaillard, A. W. K., & Dam, K. (2010). Hardiness and the response to stressful situations: Investigating mediating processes. Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 386–390.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dohrenwend, B. P. (2006). Inventory stressful life events as risk factors for psychopathology: Toward resolution of the problem of intracategory variability. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 477–495.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Eriksson, M., & Lindström, B. (2006). Antonovsky’s sense of coherence scale and the relation with health: A systematic review. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 60, 376–381.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ferris, P. A., Sinclair, C., & Kline, T. J. (2005). It takes two to tango: Personal and organizational resilience as predictors of strain and cardiovascular disease risk in a work sample. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 10, 225–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleming, R., Baum, A., & Singer, J. E. (1984). Toward an integrative approach to the study of stress. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 46, 939–949.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Friborg, O., Hjemdal, O., Rosenvinge, J. H., Martinussen, M., Aslaksen, P. M., & Flaten, M. A. (2006). Resilience as a moderator of pain and stress. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 61, 213–219.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gana, K. (2001). Is sense of coherence a mediator between adversity and psychological well-being in adults? Stress and Health, 17, 77–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Galobardes, B., Smith, G. D., & Lynch, J. W. (2006). Systematic review of the influence of childhood socioeconomic circumstances on risk for cardiovascular disease in adulthood. Annals of Epidemiology, 16, 91–104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gliksman, M. D., Kawach, I., Hunter, D., Colditz, G. A., Manson, J. E., Stampfer, M. J., Speizer, F. E., Willett, W. C., & Hennekens, C. H. (1995). Childhood socioeconomic status and risk of cardiovascular disease in middle aged US women: A prospective study. Journal of Epidemiological Community Health, 49, 10–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gorman, D. M. (1993). A review of studies comparing checklist and interview methods of data collection in life event research. Behavioral Medicine, 19, 66–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Graber, J. A., & Sontag, L. M. (2009). Internalizing problems during adolescence. In R. M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology. New Jersey: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant, K. E., Compas, B. E., Stuhlmacher, A. F., Thurm, A. E., McMahon, S. D., & Halpert, J. A. (2003). Stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology: Moving from markers to mechanisms of risk. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 447-466.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant, K. E., Compas, B. E., Thurm, A. E., McMahon, S. D., & Gipson, P. Y. (2004). Stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology: Measurement issues and prospective effects. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 412–425.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grant, K. E., Compas, B. E., Thurm, A. E., McMahon, S. D., Gipson, P. Y., Campbell, A. J., Krochock, K., & Westerholm, R. I. (2006). Stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology: Evidence of moderating and mediating effects. Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 257–283.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hammen, C. (2005). Stress and depression. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 293–319.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hammen, C. (2006). Stress generation in depression: Reflections on origins, research, and future directions. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 1065–1082.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hankin, B. L., & Abrahamson, L. Y. (2001). Development of gender differences in depression: An elaborated cognitive vulnerability-transactional stress theory. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 773–796.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hankin, B. L., Mermelstein, R., & Roesch, L. (2007). Sex differences in adolescent depression: Stress exposure and reactivity models. Child Development, 78, 279–295.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins, N. G., Davies, R., & Homes, T. H. (1957). Evidence of psychosocial factors in the development of pulmonary tuberculosis. American Review of Tuberculosis, 75, 768–780.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hjemdal, O., Friborg, O., Stiles, T. C., Martinussen, M., & Rosenvinge, J. H. (2006). A new rating scale for adolescent resilience: Grasping the central protective resources behind healthy development. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 39, 84–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hobföll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources. A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44, 513–524.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holmes, T. H., & Rahe, R. H. (1967). The social readjustment scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11, 213–218.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Honkinen, P. L. K., Suominen, S. B., Välimaa, R. S., Helenius, H. Y., & Rautava, P. T. (2005). Factors associated with perceived health among 12-year-old school children. Relevance of physical exercise and sense of coherence. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 33, 35–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jorgensen, R. S., Frankowski, J. J., & Carey, M. P. (1999). Sense of coherence, negative life events and appraisal of physical health among university students. Personality and Individual Differences, 27, 1079–1089.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kanner, A. D., Coyne, J. C., Schaefer, C., & Lazarus, R. S. (1981). Comparison of two modes of stress measurement: Daily hassles and uplifts versus major life events. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4, 1–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C. (1997). The effects of stressful life events on depression. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 191–214.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kinnunen, U., Feldt, T., Geurts, S., & Pulkkinen, L. (2006). Types of work-family interface: Well-being correlates of negative and positive spill over between work and family. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 47, 149–162.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kobasa, S. C. (1979). Stressful life events, personality, and health: An inquiry into hardiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S. (1999). Stress and emotion: A new synthesis. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S., & Launier, R. (1978). Stress-related transactions between person and environment. In L. A. Pervin & M. Lewis (Eds.), Perspectives in Interactional Psychology (pp. 87–327). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindström, B., & Eriksson, M. (2010). The Hithchiker’s guide to salutogenesis. Helsinki: Folkhalsen Research Centre.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawlor, D. A., Ebrahim, S., & Smith, G. D. (2005). Adverse socioeconomic position across the lifecourse increases coronary heart disease risk cumulatively: Findings from the British women’s heat and health study. Journal of Epidemiological Community Health, 59, 785–793.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71, 543–562.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Marmot, M., Shipley, M., Brunner, E., & Hemingway, H. (2001). Relative contribution of early life and adult socioeconomic factors to adult morbidity in the Whitehall II study. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 55, 301–307.

    Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., Neeman, J., & Andenas, S. (1994). Life events and adjustment in adolescents: The significance of event independence, desirability, and chronicity. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4, 71–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mazure, C. M. (1998). Life stressors as risk factors in depression. Clinical Psychology in Science & Practice, 5, 291–313.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mobley, L. R., Finkelstein, E. A., Khavjou, O. A., & Will, J. C. (2004). Spatial analysis of Body Mass Index and smoking behavior among WISEWOMAN participants. Journal of Women’s Health, 13, 519–528.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Monroe, S. M., & Kelly, J. M. (1995). Measurement of stress appraisal. In S. Cohen, R. C. Kessler, & L. U. Gordon (Eds.), Measuring stress: A guide for health and social sciences (pp. 122–147). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Monroe, S. M. (2008). Modern approaches to conceptualizing and measuring human life stress. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 33–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Newcomb, M. D., Huba, G. J., & Bentler, P. M. (1981). A multidimensional assessment of stressful life events among adolescents: Derivation and correlates. Journal of Health and Social Behaviour, 22, 400–415.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nielsen, A. M., & Hansson, K. (2007). Associations between adolescents’ health, stress and sense of coherence. Stress and Health, 23, 331–341.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orth, U., Robins, R. W., & Meier, L. L. (2009). Disentangling the effects of low self-esteem and stressful events on depression: Findings from three longitudinal studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 307–321.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paykel, E. S. (2001). The evolution of life events research in psychiatry. Journal of Affective Disorders, 62, 141–149.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, C. G., & Ratner, P. (2005). Sense of coherence as a moderator of the effects of stressful life events on health. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 59, 979–984.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rudolph, K. D. (2002). Gender differences in emotional responses to interpersonal stress during adolescence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 30, 3–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Selye, H. (1956). The stress of life. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Selye, H. (1974). Stress without distress. New York: New American Library.

    Google Scholar 

  • Selye, H. (1979). The stress concept and some of its implications. In V. Hamilton & D. M. Warburton (Eds.), Human Stress and Cognition: An Information Processing Approach. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Selye, H. (1982). History and present status of the stress concept. In A. Monat, R. Lazarus (1991) (Eds.). Stress and coping, an anthology (3rd ed.). New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skirka, N. (2000). The relationship of hardiness, sense of coherence, sport participation, and gender to perceived stress and psychological symptoms among college students. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 40, 63–70.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sowislo, J., & Orth, U. (2013). Does low self-esteem predict depression and anxiety? A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 213–240.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swearingen, E. M., & Cohen, L. H. (1985). Measurement of adolescents` life events: The junior high life experiences survey. American Journal of Community Psychology, 13, 69–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. E. (2009). Health psychology (7th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. E., Klein, L., Lewis, B. P., Gruenwald, T. L., Gurung, R. A. R., & Updegraff, J. A. (2000). Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: Tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight. Psychological Review, 107, 411–429.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. E., & Stanton, A. L. (2007). Coping resources, coping processes, and mental health. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 3, 377–401.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Torsheim, T., Aaroe, L. E., & Wold, B. (2001). Sense of coherence and school-related stress as predictors of subjective health complaints in early adolescence: Interactive, indirect or direct relationships? Social Science and Medicine, 53, 603–614.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wamela, S. P., Lynch, J., & Kaplan, G. A. (2001). Women’s exposure to early and later life socioeconomic disadvantage and coronary heart disease risk: The Stockholm Female Coronary Risk Study. International Journal of Epidemiology, 30, 275–284.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weidner, G., Boughal, T., Connor, S. L., Pieper, C., & Mendell, N. R. (1997). Relationship of job strain to standard coronary risk factors and psychological characteristics in women and men of the Family Heart Study. Health Psychology, 16, 239–247.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weidner, G., Kohlmann, C. W., Horsten, M., Wamala, S. P., Schenck-Gustafsson, K., Hogbom, M., & Orth-Gomer, K. (2001). Cardiovascular reactivity to mental stress in the Stockholm Female Coronary Risk. Psychosomatic Medicine, 63(6), 917–924.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yeaworth, R. C., York, J., Hussey, M. A., Ingle, M. E., & Goodwin, T. (1980). The development of an adolescent life change event scale. Adolescence, 15, 91–97.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Young, L. E., Cunningham, S. L., & Buist, D. S. M. (2005). Lone mothers are at higher risk for cardiovascular disease compared with partnered mothers. Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III (NHANES III). Health Care for Women International, 26, 604–621.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Center for Health Promotion Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway

    Unni Karin Moksnes

  2. Center for Health Promotion Research, Department of Social Work and Health Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway

    Geir Arild Espnes

  3. Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia

    Geir Arild Espnes

Authors
  1. Unni Karin Moksnes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Geir Arild Espnes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Unni Karin Moksnes .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Monash Cardiovascular Research Centre, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

    Marlies E. Alvarenga

  2. ANU Medical School, Australia National University, Canberra, Aust Capital Terr, Australia

    Don Byrne

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer Science+Business Media Singapore

About this entry

Cite this entry

Moksnes, U.K., Espnes, G.A. (2016). Stress: Concepts, Models, and Measures. In: Alvarenga, M., Byrne, D. (eds) Handbook of Psychocardiology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-206-7_11

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation