Abstract
The emergence of the bilateral embryonic body axis from a symmetrical egg has been a long-standing question in developmental biology. Historical and modern experiments point to an initial symmetry-breaking event leading to localized Wnt and Nodal growth factor signaling and subsequent induction and formation of a self-regulating dorsal “organizer.” This organizer forms at the site of notochord cell internalization and expresses primarily Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP) growth factor antagonists that establish a spatiotemporal gradient of BMP signaling across the embryo, directing initial cell differentiation and morphogenesis. Although the basics of this model have been known for some time, many of the molecular and cellular details have only recently been elucidated and the extent that these events remain conserved throughout vertebrate evolution remains unclear. This chapter summarizes historical perspectives as well as recent molecular and genetic advances regarding: (1) the mechanisms that regulate symmetry-breaking in the vertebrate egg and early embryo, (2) the pathways that are activated by these events, in particular the Wnt pathway, and the role of these pathways in the formation and function of the organizer, and (3) how these pathways also mediate anteroposterior patterning and axial morphogenesis. Emphasis is placed on comparative aspects of the egg-to-embryo transition across vertebrates and their evolution. The future prospects for work regarding self-organization and gene regulatory networks in the context of early axis formation are also discussed.
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Notes
- 1.
The nomenclature of the gray crescent has been quite variable. Roux (1888) referred to this feature as a “crescent-shaped gray seam” (halbmondförmigen grauen Saumes). Morgan and Tsuda (1894) used the term “white crescent,” whereas Morgan and Boring (1903) used “grey crescent” [sic], translated as “graue Feld” (gray field). Later this became universally referred to as the gray crescent/grauer Halbmond/croissant gris.
- 2.
In this chapter, Hensen’s node is used to refer to the anterior tip of the primitive streak in all birds and mammals, and is considered equivalent to the dorsal lip/organizer. Often the mouse organizer is referred to as the “node” without the eponym. However, the node can also refer to the posterior notochord “node” involved in left-right patterning, which lacks organizer activity. This terminology can cause confusion since the latter structure is embryologically distinct from Hensen’s node. In human embryology, Hensen’s node is referred to as the primitive node/knot or Hensens’ knot (Gray 1918; Larsen et al. 2009).
Abbreviations
- AP:
-
Anteroposterior, Anterior-to-posterior
- AVE:
-
Anterior visceral endoderm
- BMP:
-
Bone morphogenetic protein
- CRD:
-
Cysteine-rich domain
- DEP domain:
-
Dishevelled, Egl10, Pleckstrin
- DFC:
-
Dorsal forerunner cell
- DIX domain:
-
Dishevelled, Axin
- DV:
-
Dorsoventral, Dorsal-to-ventral
- dYSL:
-
Dorsal yolk syncytial layer
- EMT:
-
Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition
- EpiSC:
-
Epiblast stem cells
- ES:
-
Embryonic stem
- EVL:
-
Enveloping layer
- FGF:
-
Fibroblast growth factor
- GPCR:
-
G protein-coupled receptor
- HMG:
-
High mobility group
- ICM:
-
Inner cell mass
- MAPK:
-
Mitogen-activated protein kinase
- MBT:
-
Mid-blastula transition
- MPF:
-
Maturation promoting factor
- PCP:
-
Planar cell polarity
- PDZ domain:
-
Postsynaptic density protein (PSD95), Disc large tumor suppressor (Dlg1), and zonula occludens1 protein (ZO-1)
- PMZ:
-
Posterior marginal zone
- TALEN:
-
TAL-effector nuclease
- TE:
-
Trophectoderm
- Tgfb:
-
Transforming growth factor beta
- UV:
-
Ultraviolet irradiation
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Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank B. Fritzsch for assistance with German translations. This work was supported by the University of Iowa.
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Houston, D.W. (2017). Vertebrate Axial Patterning: From Egg to Asymmetry. In: Pelegri, F., Danilchik, M., Sutherland, A. (eds) Vertebrate Development. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol 953. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-46095-6_6
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