Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Use of Non-Conventional Water Resources in Agriculture in the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries: Key Challenges and Opportunities for the Use of Treated Wastewater

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Biosaline Agriculture as a Climate Change Adaptation for Food Security

  • 338 Accesses

Abstract

The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries are situated in a region of severe water poverty characterized by harsh climatic conditions. The average per capita share of natural freshwater resources is among the lowest in the world at about 120 m3/year; much less than the recognized absolute water scarcity limit (500 m3/capita/year). On the other hand, the average per capita annual water consumption is about 800 m3/capita/year, putting the GCC region within the world’s highest water consumers. This huge deficit in their natural water resources, reaching over 15 BCM, is met mainly by extensive over-abstraction of the limited groundwater resources, vast installation of expensive desalination plants, and to a lesser extent, the reuse of treated wastewater. Treated wastewater has the potential to play an important role as a non-conventional water resource, especially for the agricultural sector, the biggest water consumer (77%), reducing pressure on the depleted groundwater, matching the continuous increase in water demand, minimizing contamination, conserving energy, and reducing the environmental footprint of wastewater treatment. However, treated wastewater still accounts for only 3% of the total GCC water demand. The wastewater sector faces three key challenges that must be carefully managed to reach full utilization, these are: public perception, health and environmental risk, and economic and cost recovery. For this to be accomplished, developing a reuse strategy/policy is a necessity for promoting the treatment efficiency and maximizing the treated wastewater reuse. Sustainable water systems can be entirely realized if everyone begins thinking about wastewater differently.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 149.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. 1.

    Ten countries (Brazil, Russia, USA, Canada, Indonesia, China, European Union, Colombia, Peru, and India) are the world giants in terms of natural water resources, accounting for about 60% of the world’s freshwater. At the other extreme, the water poorest countries, usually the arid and smallest ones, include Bahrain, Kuwait, Jordan, Libya, Maldives, Malta, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Yemen, and Saudi Arabia (FAO 2003).

  2. 2.

    Globally, 1,000 m3 of water per person per year is considered the minimum amount to sustain life and ensure industrial development and agricultural production in countries where climates require irrigation, based on the Falkenmark index. This index is the most widely used tool for classifying the per capita available renewable water resources, in regions with no stress (>1,700 m3), water stress (<1,700 m3), water scarcity (<1,000 m3), and absolute water scarcity (<500 m3) per capita per year (Falkenmark 1986; Darwish et al. 2014; Gampe et al. 2016; Kummu et al. 2016).

  3. 3.

    It is important to note that this percentage does not account for the exact water utilization of the industrial sector, because the industrial sector relies on its own desalination plants.

  4. 4.

    Terawatt-hour (TWh) is a measure of electrical energy, equals one trillion (1012) watt-hours.

  5. 5.

    WEAP (Water Evaluation And Planning) dynamic modeling software that takes an integrated approach to all water resources.

References

  • Abdelrahman RM, Khamis SE, Rizk ZE (2020) Public attitude toward expanding the reuse of treated wastewater in the United Arab Emirates. Environ Dev Sustainability 22(8):7887–7908

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abdul-Khaliq SJ, Ahmed M, Al-Wardy M, Al-Busaidi A, Choudri BS (2017) Wastewater and sludge management and research in Oman: An overview. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 67(3):267–278

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abusam A, Shahalam AB (2013) Wastewater reuse in Kuwait: Opportunities and constraints. Trans Ecol Environ 179:745–754

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ACWUA (2010) Wastewater reuse in Arab Countries. ACWUA Working Group, Jordan, pp 1–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Akpan VE, Omole DO, Bassey DE (2020) Assessing the public perceptions of treated wastewater reuse: Opportunities and implications for urban communities in developing countries. Heliyon 6(10):e05246

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Alataway AA, Ness MR, Gowing JW (2011) Public attitude towards wastewater reuse for irrigated agriculture in Saudi Arabia. WIT Trans Ecol Environ 145:759–767

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Badi A, AlMubarak I (2019) Growing energy demand in the GCC countries. Arab J Basic Appl Sci 26(1):488–496

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Albastaki A, Naji M, Lootah R, Almeheiri R, Almulla H, Almarri I, … Alghafri R (2021) First confirmed detection of SARS-COV-2 in untreated municipal and aircraft wastewater in Dubai, UAE: The use of wastewater based epidemiology as an early warning tool to monitor the prevalence of COVID-19. Sci Total Environ 760:143350

    Google Scholar 

  • Aleisa E, Al-Zubar W (2017) Wastewater reuse in the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC): The lost opportunity. Environ Monit Assess 189:1–15

    Google Scholar 

  • Alhumoud JM, Madzikanda D (2010) Public perceptions on water reuse options: The case of Sulaibiya wastewater treatment plant in Kuwait. Int Bus Econ Res J (IBER) 9(1):141–158

    Google Scholar 

  • Al Huraimel K, Alhosani M, Kunhabdulla S, Stietiya MH (2020) SARS-CoV-2 in the environment: Modes of transmission, early detection and potential role of pollutions. Sci Total Environ 744:140946

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Jasser AO (2011) Saudi wastewater reuse standards for agricultural irrigation: Riyadh treatment plants effluent compliance. J King Saud Univ 23:1–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Alkhamisi SA, Ahmed M (2014) Opportunities and challenges of using treated wastewater in agriculture. Environmental cost and face of agriculture in the gulf cooperation council countries, pp 109–123

    Google Scholar 

  • Alkhudhiri A, Darwish N. Bin, Hilal N (2019) Analytical and forecasting study for wastewater treatment and water resources in Saudi Arabia. J Water Process Eng 32:100915

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Malood I, Abdulrazzak M, Al-zubari W (2010) Studying the extent of change in the Bahraini community’s acceptance of the treated wastewater reuse. Diploma Thesis, Arabian Gulf University, Bahrain

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Mutawa AM, Al-Murbati WM, Al-Ruwaili NA, Al-Orafi AS, Al-Orafi A, Al-Arafati A, Nasrullah A, Al Bahow MR, Al Anzi SM, Rashidi M, Al-Moosa SZ (2014) Desalination in the GCC. The history, the present & the future: Water resources committee, GCC General Secretariat, pp 1–47

    Google Scholar 

  • Alpen-Capital (2019) GCC food industry. pp 1–101

    Google Scholar 

  • Al Rashdi B, Ramaswamy M, Karim AM (2020) Impact of COVID 19 on FM services and strategies to overcome this situation in GCC countries. Eur J Mol Clin Med 7(3):526–534

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Rashed MF, Sherif MM (2000) Water resources in the GCC countries: An overview. Water Resour Manage 14:59–75

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Saidi M, Saliba S (2019) Water, energy and food supply security in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries-A risk perspective. Water 11(455):1–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Alsharhan AS, Rizk ZE (2020a) Overview on global water resources. Springer, Switzerland, pp 17–61

    Google Scholar 

  • Alsharhan AS, Rizk ZE (2020b) Treated wastewater: Quality concerns and potential uses. World Water Resour 3:471–497

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Zubari W, Al-Turbak A, Zahid W, Al-Ruwis K, Al-Tkhais A, Al-Muataz I, Abdelwahab A, Murad A, Al-Harbi M, Al-Sulaymani Z (2017) An overview of the GCC unified water strategy (2016–2035). Desalin Water Treat 81:1–18

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Zubari W, AlAjjawi S (2020) Promoting an EU-GCC climate change agenda: Water security priorities. Bussola Institute, Belgium, pp 1–56

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Zubari WK (1998) Towards the establishment of a total water cycle management and re-use program in the GCC countries. Desalination 120:3–14

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Zubari WK (2017) Chapter 1: Status of Water in the Arab Region. The Water, Energy, and Food Security Nexus in the Arab Region, Springer, pp 1–24

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Zubari WK, Al-Rashidi, MF (2020) Health and the environment in Arab countries: Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on water supply and sanitation in the GCC countries: Challenges and lessons learned: Arab Forum for Environment and Development (AFED) Annual Report, Beirut, pp 87–91

    Google Scholar 

  • Amery HA, Haddad M (2015) Ethical and cultural dimensions of water reuse: Islamic perspectives. Urban Water Reuse Handbook, pp 275–283

    Google Scholar 

  • AQUASTAT (FAO's global water information system) data (2017). http://www.fao.org/aquastat/statistics/query/index.html;jsessionid=59E804668C43E314517D8415464ABE86

  • Baawain MS, Sana A, Al-Yahyai R, Al-Sabti A (2012) Sustainable and beneficial options for reusing treated wastewater in Muscat, Oman. In: Proceedings, 12th international environmental specialty conference, Springer, Switzerland, pp 1–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Baig MB, Alotibi Y, Straquadine GS, Alataway A (2020) Water resources in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Challenges and strategies for improvement. Global Issues in Water Policy. Springer, Switzerland, pp 135–160

    Google Scholar 

  • Ben Hassen T, El Bilali H (2019) Food security in the Gulf cooperation council countries: Challenges and prospects. J Food Secur 7(5):159–169

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Capodaglio AG (2017) Integrated, decentralized wastewater management for resource recovery in rural and peri-urban areas. Resources 6(22):1–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Cosgrove WJ, Loucks DP (2015) Water management: Current and future challenges and research directions. Water Resour Res 51:4823–4839

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cristóvão R, Botelho C, Martins R, Boaventura R (2012) Pollution prevention and wastewater treatment in fish canning industries of northern Portugal. Int Proc Chem Biol Environ Eng 32(1):12–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Dalahmeh S, Baresel C (2014) Reclaimed wastewater use alternatives and quality standards. From global to country perspective. Spain versus Abu Dhabi Emirate, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Stockholm, pp 1–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Dare A, Mohtar RH (2018) Farmer perceptions regarding irrigation with treated wastewater in the West Bank, Tunisia, and Qatar. Water Int 1–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Darwish M, Abdulrahim HK, Mabrouk AN, Hassan A, Shomar B (2015) Reclaimed wastewater for agriculture irrigation in Qatar. Global Sci Res J 3(1):106–120

    Google Scholar 

  • Darwish MA, Al-najem NM, Lior N (2009) Towards sustainable seawater desalting in the Gulf area. Desalination 235:58–87

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Darwish MA, Abdulrahim HK, Mohieldeen Y (2014) Qatar and GCC water security. Desalination Water Treat 1–24

    Google Scholar 

  • Dawoud MA (2012) Environmental impacts of seawater desalination: Arabian Gulf case study. Int J Environ Sustainability 1(3):22–37

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dawoud MA (2017) The role of TSE reuse in water sustainability in GCC countries. WSTA 12th Gulf water conference, Bahrain, pp 504–527

    Google Scholar 

  • Dery JL, Rock CM, Goldstein RR, Onumajuru C, Brassill N, Zozaya S, Suri MR (2019) Understanding grower perceptions and attitudes on the use of nontraditional water sources, including reclaimed or recycled water, in the semi-arid southwest United States. Environ Res 170:500–509

    Google Scholar 

  • Dolnicar S, Hurlimann A, Grün B (2011) What affects public acceptance of recycled and desalinated water? Water Res 45(2):933–943

    Google Scholar 

  • Droogers P, Immerzeel WW, Terink W, Hoogeveen J, Bierkens MFP, Van Beek LPH, Debele B (2012) Water resources trends in middle east and north Africa towards 2050. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 16:3101–3114

    Google Scholar 

  • Dutch Economic Network (2018) Opportunities for businesses in the Gulf region. Water, Netherlands, pp 1–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Economist (The Economist Intelligence Unit) (2010) The GCC in 2020. Resources for the future, Qatar, pp 1–30

    Google Scholar 

  • Economist (The Economist Intelligence Unit) (2019) Global food trends to 2030, with a closer look at the GCC, Dubai, pp 1–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Elgallal M, Fletcher L, Evans B (2016) Assessment of potential risks associated with chemicals in wastewater used for irrigation in arid and semiarid zones: A review. Agric Water Manag 177:419–431

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ESCWA (2017) Arab climate change assessment report. regional initiative for the assessment of climate change impacts on water resources and socio-economic vulnerability in the Arab region (RICCAR), Beirut, pp 1–334

    Google Scholar 

  • Falkenmark M (1986) Fresh water—time for a modified approach. Ambio 15(4):192–200

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO (2003) Review of world water resources by country, Rome, pp 1–111

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO (2010) The wealth of waste: The economics of wastewater use in agriculture. FAO water reports, Rome, pp 1–131

    Google Scholar 

  • Faruqui NI, Biswas AK, Bino MJ (2001) Water management in Islam. United Nations University (UNU) Press, Japan, pp 1–148

    Google Scholar 

  • Fielding KS, Dolnicar S, Schultz T (2018) Public acceptance of recycled water. Int J Water Resour Dev 1–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Gampe D, Nikulin G, Ludwig R (2016) Using an ensemble of regional climate models to assess climate change impacts on water scarcity in European river basins. Sci Total Environ 573:1503–1518

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia-Cuerva L, Berglund EZ, Binder AR (2016) Public perceptions of water shortages, conservation behaviors, and support for water reuse in the U.S. Resour Conserv Recycl 113:106–115

    Google Scholar 

  • GCC-STAT (The Statistical Centre for the Cooperation Council for the Arab Countries of the Gulf) data (2018). https://www.gccstat.org/en/

  • GCC-STAT (2021) GCC progress report about the performance towards the achievement of SDGs, pp 1–145

    Google Scholar 

  • Gleick PH (1996) Basic water requirements for human activities: Meeting basic needs. Water Int 21:83–92

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanjra MA, Blackwell J, Carr G, Zhang F, Jackson TM (2012) Wastewater irrigation and environmental health: Implications for water governance and public policy. Int J Hyg Environ Health 215:255–269

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hasan SW, Ibrahim Y, Daou M, Kannout H, Jan N, Lopes A, Alsafar H, Yousef AF (2021) Detection and quantification of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater and treated effluents: Surveillance of COVID-19 epidemic in the United Arab Emirates. Sci Total Environ 764:142929

    Google Scholar 

  • IEA-ETSAP and IRENA (2013) Water desalination using renewable energy. International Energy Agency (IEA)—The Energy Technology Systems Analysis Program (ETSAP) and the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Policy Brief, pp 1–10

    Google Scholar 

  • IPCC (2018) Summary for policymakers. An IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty. IPCC, pp 1–24

    Google Scholar 

  • Jasim SY, Saththasivam J, Loganathan K, Ogunbiyi OO, Sarp S (2016) Reuse of treated sewage effluent (TSE) in Qatar. J Water Process Eng 11:174–182

    Google Scholar 

  • Kajenthira A, Siddiqi A, Anadon LD (2012) A new case for promoting wastewater reuse in Saudi Arabia: Bringing energy into the water equation. J Environ Manage 102:184–192

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kehrein P, Van Loosdrecht M, Osseweijer P, Garfí M, Dewulf J, Posada J (2020) A critical review of resource recovery from municipal wastewater treatment plants-market supply potentials, technologies and bottlenecks. Environ Sci: Water Res Technol 6(4):877–910

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khan M, Dghaim R (2016) Microbial quality of treated wastewater used for irrigation of public parks in Dubai United Arab Emirates. New Biotechnol 33:S55–S56

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kretschmer N, Ribbe L, Gaese H (2000) Wastewater reuse for agriculture. Technol Resour Dev - Sci Contrib Sustainable Dev (2):37–64

    Google Scholar 

  • KSA-MEWA (2018) Kingdom of Saudi Arabia - National Water Strategy 2030, pp 1–100

    Google Scholar 

  • Kummu M, Guillaume JHA, De Moel H, Eisner S, Flörke M, Porkka M, Siebert S, Veldkamp TIE, Ward PJ (2016) The world’s road to water scarcity: Shortage and stress in the 20th century and pathways towards sustainability. Nat Sci Rep 6:1–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Lahrich S, Laghrib F, Farahi A, Bakasse M, Saqrane S, Mhammedi MAEl (2021) Science of the Total Environment Review on the contamination of wastewater by COVID-19 virus: Impact and treatment. Sci Total Environ 751:142325

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazaridou D, Michailidis A, Mattas K (2019) Evaluating the willingness to pay for using recycled water for irrigation. Sustainability 11:1–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lesimple A, Jasim SY, Johnson DJ, Hilal N (2020) The role of wastewater treatment plants as tools for SARS-CoV-2 early detection and removal. J Water Process Eng 38:101544

    Google Scholar 

  • Liao Z, Chen Z, Xu A, Gao Q, Song K, Liu J, Hu HY (2021) Wastewater treatment and reuse situations and influential factors in major Asian countries. J Environ Manage 282:111976

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Madany IM, Al-Shiryan A, Lori I, Al-Khalifa H (1992) Public awareness and attitudes toward various uses of renovated water. Environ Int 18:489–495

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mandal P, Gupta AK, Dubey BK (2020) A review on presence, survival, disinfection/removal methods of coronavirus in wastewater and progress of wastewater-based epidemiology. J Environ Chem Eng 8:104317

    Google Scholar 

  • Missimer TM, Drewes JE, Amy G, Maliva RG, Keller S (2012) Restoration of Wadi aquifers by artificial recharge with treated waste water. Ground Water 50(4):514–527

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mohamed MM, Parimalarenganayaki S, Khan Q, Murad A (2021) Review on the use of environmental isotopes for groundwater recharge and evaporation studies in the GCC countries. Groundwater Sustain Dev 12:100546

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mu’azu ND, Abubakar IR, Blaisi (2020) NI Public acceptability of treated wastewater reuse in Saudi Arabia: Implications for water management policy. Sci Total Environ 721

    Google Scholar 

  • Ouda OKM (2013) Towards assessment of Saudi Arabia public awareness of water shortage problem. Resour Environ 3(1):10–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Ouda OKM (2014) Domestic water demand in Saudi Arabia: Assessment of desalinated water as strategic supply source. Desalin Water Treat 1–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Ouda OKM (2016) Treated wastewater use in Saudi Arabia: Challenges and initiatives. Int J Water Resour Dev 32(5):799–809

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parimalarenganayaki S (2021) Managed aquifer recharge in the Gulf Countries: A review and selection criteria. Arab J Sci Eng 46(1):1–15

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parkinson J, Tayler K (2003) Decentralized wastewater management in peri-urban areas in low-income countries. Environ Urban 15(1):75–90

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pidwirny M (2006) The hydrologic cycle. Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 2nd edn, pp 1–3

    Google Scholar 

  • PwC (2012) Water: Challenges, drivers and solutions. PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC), pp 1–82

    Google Scholar 

  • Qureshi AS (2020) Challenges and prospects of using treated wastewater to manage water scarcity crises in the Gulf cooperation council (GCC) countries. Water 12(1971):1–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Saif O, Mezher T, Arafat HA (2014) Water security in the GCC countries: Challenges and opportunities. J Environ Stud Sci 4:329–346

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shammas MI (2008) The effectiveness of artificial recharge in combating seawater intrusion in Salalah coastal aquifer, Oman. Environ Geol 55(1):191–204

    Google Scholar 

  • Shoushtarian F, Negahban-Azar M (2020) Worldwide regulations and guidelines for agricultural water reuse: A critical review. Water 12(4)

    Google Scholar 

  • Statista (2021) Demographic data. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1005526/gcc-population-growth/

  • Thakur M, Bajaal S, Rana N, Verma ML (2020) Microalgal technology: A promising tool for wastewater remediation, Springer, Singapore, pp 25–56

    Google Scholar 

  • UN (2019) Population division of the department of economic and social affairs of the United Nations. World population prospects. https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/

  • UNDP (2020) Human Development Report 2020. The next frontier human development and the anthropocene. UNDP, New York, pp 1–396

    Google Scholar 

  • UN-Water (2021) Valuing water. The United Nations World Water Development Report. UNESCO, Paris, pp 1–187

    Google Scholar 

  • UN WWAP (2017) The United Nations World Water Development Report 2017. Wastewater: The Untapped Resource: United Nations World Water Assessment Programme and UNESCO, Paris, pp 1–179

    Google Scholar 

  • Vanderzalm J, Page D, Regel R, Ingleton G, Nwayo C, Gonzalez D (2020) Nutrient transformation and removal from treated wastewater recycled via aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) in a carbonate aquifer. Water Air Soil Pollut 231:65

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • VNR (2018) The Kingdom of Bahrain’s first voluntary national review report on the implementation of the 2030 agenda for sustainable development and the sustainable development goals, Bahrain, pp 1–106

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2003a) Domestic water quantity, service level And HEALTH. World Health Organization, Switzerland, pp 1–33

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2003b) State of the art report- health risks in aquifer recharge using reclaimed water. World Health Organization, pp 1–112

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2004) integrated guide to sanitary parasitology. World Health Organization, Jordan, pp 1–120

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2018) Guidelines on sanitation and health. World Health Organization, Switzerland, pp 1–198

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson Z, Pfaff B (2008) Religious, philosophical and environmentalist perspectives on potable wastewater reuse in Durban South Africa. Desalination 228:1–9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • World Bank data (2020). https://data.worldbank.org

  • WWAP and UNESCO (2019) The United Nations World Water Development Report. Leaving no one behind, UNESCO, Paris, pp 1–186

    Google Scholar 

  • Yagoub MM, AlSumaiti TS, Ebrahim L, Ahmed Y, Abdulla R (2019) Pattern of water use at the United Arab Emirates University. Water 11(12)

    Google Scholar 

  • Zekri S, Al-Maamari A (2020) An overview of the water sector in MENA region. Global Issues in Water Policy 23:1–17

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmo OR, Imseih N (2010) Overview of wastewater management practices in the mediterranean region. Waste Water Treat Reuse Mediterr Region 14:155–181

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zotalis K, Dialynas EG, Mamassis N, Angelakis AN (2014) Desalination technologies: Hellenic experience. Water 6:1134–1150

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Environment and Sustainable Development, College of Science, University of Bahrain, Sakhir, Bahrain

    Fadia M. Tashtush

  2. Department of Natural Resources and Environment, College of Graduate Studies, Arabian Gulf University, Manama, Bahrain

    Fadia M. Tashtush & Waleed K. Al-Zubari

  3. Department of Chemistry, College of Science, University of Bahrain, Sakhir, Bahrain

    Ameera S. Al-Haddad

Authors
  1. Fadia M. Tashtush
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Waleed K. Al-Zubari
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ameera S. Al-Haddad
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Fadia M. Tashtush .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Agricultural Innovation and Technologies Transfer Cernter, University Mohamed VI Polytechnic, Benguerir, Morocco

    Redouane Choukr-Allah

  2. UK Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, UKCEH, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK

    Ragab Ragab

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Tashtush, F.M., Al-Zubari, W.K., Al-Haddad, A.S. (2023). The Use of Non-Conventional Water Resources in Agriculture in the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries: Key Challenges and Opportunities for the Use of Treated Wastewater. In: Choukr-Allah, R., Ragab, R. (eds) Biosaline Agriculture as a Climate Change Adaptation for Food Security. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24279-3_14

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation