Abstract
Many factors can influence the stability of natural and cultural heritage sites, including geohazards such as flooding, seismic activity and mass movement, as well as rock weathering, swelling and thermal fatigue. Understanding these phenomena enables more efficient and effective preservation of important locations. The so-called Theban nobles’ tombs at Sheikh ‘Abd el-Qurna (SAQ) in Luxor, Egypt, showcase the geological complexity that affects tomb stability. While some of these rock-cut tombs were excavated during the early Middle Kingdom (twentieth century BC), tomb construction at SAQ peaked during the 18th Dynasty (15th–14th centuries BC) and included large tombs with pillared halls. The cemetery occupies a paleo-landslide deposit comprising mainly the Thebes Limestone Formation, originating from the high cliffs of the Theban Plateau above the Nile valley and overlying the weaker Esna Shale Formation. This paper explores the geological and geotechnical factors that contribute to the evolution of the stability of the tombs. We address how resistant-over-recessive lithology, mass movement, and rock mass properties possibly influenced tomb construction procedures and strategies. We provide a geological map of the investigated archaeological area, describe discontinuity properties, and classify the rock mass using the Rock Mass Rating (RMR) and Geological Strength Index (GSI) systems, based on field traverses and the analysis of landscape and local photogrammetric and laser scanning datasets. We also characterise the stability of rock pillars within tombs, using a rating system. Results show that significant modifications to design of large tombs were rare when tomb builders encountered weaker rock masses. Rock failures during and after tomb construction occurred because of unfavourably oriented tension cracks and faults or disintegration of weathered nodular limestone. We are currently monitoring a pillared tomb at SAQ (TT95A), using non-invasive seismometer, extensometer, temperature and relative humidity sensors, and recommend the monitoring of metastable pillars on a broader scale to identify long-term failure processes and prevent further damage and collapse.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alcaíno-Olivares R, Perras MA, Ziegler M, Maissen J (2019) Cliff stability at tomb KV42 in the Valley of the Kings, Egypt: a first approach to numerical modelling and site investigation. In: ARMA 201,9 pp 1–10
Alcaíno-Olivares R, Perras M A, Ziegler M, Leith K (2020) Thermo-mechanical cliff stability at tomb KV42 in the Valley of the Kings, Egypt. In: EUROCK 2020, pp 1–8. (in prep)
Aydan O, Tano H, Genis M, Sakamoto I, Hamada M, Yoshimura S (2008) Environmental and rock mechanics investigations for the restoration of the tomb of Amenophis III. Japan-Egypt joint symposium new horizons in geotechnical and geoenvironmental engineering, Tanta University, Egypt, pp 151–162
Bieniawski ZT (1973) Engineering classification of jointed rock masses. Civil Engineer in South Africa 15(12):335–343
Bieniawski ZT (1989) Engineering rock mass classifications: a complete manual for engineers and geologists in mining, civil, and petroleum engineering. Wiley
Cai M, Kaiser PK, Uno H, Tasaka Y, Minami M (2004) Estimation of rock mass deformation modulus and strength of jointed hard rock masses using the GSI system. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 41(1):3–19
Curtis GH (1979) The geology of the Valley of the Kings, Thebes, Egypt. Theban Royal Tomb Project, The Brooklyn Museum Theban Expedition, vol 28. Unpublished report, Brooklyn Museum
Dupuis C, Aubry MP, King C, Knox RW, Berggren WA, Youssef M, Galal WF, Roche M (2011) Genesis and geometry of tilted blocks in the Theban Hills, near Luxor (Upper Egypt). J Afr Earth Sci 61(3):245–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2011.06.001
Esterhuizen GS, Innancchione AT, Ellenberger JL, Dolinar DR (2005) Pillar stability issues based on a survey of pillar performance in underground limestone mines. In: Peng S, Mark C, Finfinger G L, Tadolini S, Khair A W, Heasley K A, Luo Y (eds) Proceedings of the 25th international conference on ground control in mining, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, pp 354–361
Karakhanyan A, Avagyan A, Sourouzian H (2010) Archaeoseismological studies at the temple of Amenhotep III, Luxor, Egypt. In: Sintubin M, Stewart IS, Niemi TM, Altunel E (eds) Ancient earthquakes (Geological Society of America Special Paper 471). Geological Society of America, Boulder, pp 199–222
Karlshausen C, Dupuis C (2014) Architectes et tailleurs de pierre à l’épreuve du terrain. Réflexions géoarchéologiques sur la colline de Cheikh Abd el-Gourna. Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale 114(1):261–289
King C, Dupuis C, Aubry MP, Berggren WA, Knox RB, Galal WF, Baele JM (2017) Anatomy of a mountain: the Thebes Limestone Formation (Lower Eocene) at Gebel Gurnah, Luxor, Nile Valley, Upper Egypt. J Afr Earth Sci 136:1–48
Lazar J (1995) Geologisch-geotechnische Untersuchungen im Thebanischen Gebirge, Teil Nord, Luxor, Ägypten. Diploma thesis, University of Bern, Geological Institute
Maamoun M, Megahed A, Allam A (1984) Seismicity of Egypt. Bull HIAG 4:109–160
Marinos P, Hoek E (2000) GSI: a geologically friendly tool for rock mass strength estimation. International Society for Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, In ISRM international symposium
Rutherford JB (1990) Geotechnical causes of ancient tomb damage, valley of the kings, Egypt. In: Balasubramaniam AS et al (eds) Proceedings of the symposium on geotechnical aspects of restoration works on infrastructures and monuments, Bangkok, December 1988. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 3–15
Sawires R, Peláez JA, Fat-Helbary RE, Ibrahim HA, García Hernández MT (2015) An updated seismic source model for Egypt. In: Earthquake engineering, IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/58971
Shaaban MN (2004) Diagenesis of the lower Eocene Thebes formation, Gebel Rewagen area, Eastern Desert. Egypt. Sediment Geol 165:53–65
Tawfik HA, Zahran EK, Abdel-Hameed AT, Maejima W (2011) Mineralogy, petrography, and biostratigraphy of the Lower Eocene succession at Gebel El-Qurn, West Luxor. Southern Egypt. Arab J Geosci 4(3–4):517–534. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-010-0158-6
Wuest RAJ (1995) Geologisch-geotechnische Untersuchungen im thebanischen Gebirge, Teil Süd, Luxor, Ägypten. Diploma thesis, University Bern, Geological Institute
Wuest RAJ, McLane J (2000) Rock deterioration in the Royal Tomb of Seti I, Valley of the Kings, Luxor. Egypt. Eng Geol 58(2):163–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(00)00057-0
Youssef MI (1968) Structural pattern of Egypt and its interpretation. AAPG Bull 52(4):601–614
Ziegler M, Colldeweih R, Wolter A, Loprieno-Gnirs A (2019) Rock mass quality and preliminary analysis of the stability of ancient rock-cut Theban tombs at Sheikh ‘Abd el-Qurna. Egypt. Bull Eng Geol Env 78:6179–6205
Acknowledgements
Funding for this project was provided through an SNF grant supporting the larger “Life Histories of Theban Tombs” project. The German Aerospace Centre (DLR) kindly provided TerraSAR-X digital elevation data. The ongoing monitoring project is sponsored by the Nature Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada through the Discovery Grant Program (RGPIN-2018–05,918), and sensors were subsidized by the manufacturer Yield Point Inc.
We greatly appreciate the approval and support of the Permanent Committee of the Supreme Council of Antiquities in Cairo including Secretary General Dr Moustafa Waziri and Director of the Department of Foreign Missions Dr Nashwa Gaber, the General Directors of Upper Egypt and the Luxor Inspectorate Mr Mohammad Yahya and Mr El-Kazzafy El- ‘Azab, the General Director of Western Thebes Mr Fathy Yaseen and Second Director of Western Thebes Mr Bahaa Abd el-Gabir, the Director of Foreign Missions of Western Thebes Mr Ramadan Ahmed Ali and the Director of the Middle Area of Western Thebes Mr Ezz El-Din, as well as their predecessors and staff. We thank Mr Mahmoud Ibrahim and Raïs ‘Abd el-Hameed Othman for their administrative, logistical and technical support during our field campaigns.
We are also indebted to Dr K. Powroznik for kindly capturing aerial images using the project’s helikite, and to Prof. Andreas Wieser and his staff and students (P. Theiler, E. Friedli, D. Steinmann, M. Martinoni, L. Kaiser, K. Henggeler, A. Baumann, C. Zhou, Z. Gojcic) at ETH Zurich for providing TLS-based 3D models. Discussions with Andrew Hyett and Pierre Ballester on the monitoring system are greatly appreciated.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Wolter, A., Ziegler, M., Colldeweih, R., Loprieno-Gnirs, A., Alcaino-Olivares, R., Perras, M. (2023). Geological Factors Controlling Evolution of Theban Tomb Stability, Luxor. In: El-Qady, G.M., Margottini, C. (eds) Sustainable Conservation of UNESCO and Other Heritage Sites Through Proactive Geosciences. Springer Geology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13810-2_23
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13810-2_23
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-13809-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-13810-2
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)