Abstract
Agnew’s (J Res Crime Delinq 36:123–155, 1999) study of youth behavior and negative situations found that those settings that frequently possess aggressive or vicious environments (i.e., a youth’s neighborhood) promote nervousness and antagonism for those who witness it. These environments result in increased exposure to violence that is associated with engagement in school and community-based violence. Several studies indicate that socialization designed to bolster certain cultural, self, social, and familial protective factors can reduce delinquent attitudes and behaviors among urban youth. This chapter will review the literature that supports the importance of protective factors in violence reduction. This chapter will also provide suggestions for school violence interventions.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abar, B., Carter, K. L., & Winsler, A. (2009). The effects of maternal parenting style and religious commitment on self-regulation, academic achievement, and risk behavior among African-American parochial college students. Journal of Adolescence, 32(2), 259–273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2008.03.008
Adams, J., & Mrug, S. (2019). Individual-and school-level predictors of violence perpetration, victimization, and perceived safety in middle and high schools. Journal of School Violence, 18(3), 468–482. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2018.1528551
Agnew, R. (1999). A general strain theory of community differences in crime rates. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 36(2), 123–155. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427899036002001
Ahlin, E. M. (2014). Locus of control redux: Adolescents’ choice to refrain from violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29(14), 2695–2717. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260513520505
Aisenberg, E., & Herrenkohl, T. (2008). Community violence in context: Risk and resilience in children and families. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23(3), 296–315. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260507312287
Akiba, M. (2010). What Predicts Fear of School Violence Among U.S. Adolescents? Teachers College Record, 112(1), 68–102. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811011200110
Akter, S., & Rahman, S. (2018). The role of locus of control, self-concept on bullying behavior of adolescence. International Journal of Indian Psychology, 6(1), 30–37.
Alvarez, A., & Bachman, R. (1997). Predicting the fear of assault at school and while going to and from school in an adolescent population. Violence and Victims, 12(1), 69–86. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.12.1.69
Álvarez-García, D., García, T., & Núñez, J. C. (2015). Predictors of school bullying perpetration in adolescence: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 23, 126–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.05.007
Arbona, C., Jackson, R. H., McCoy, A., & Blakely, C. (1999). Ethnic identity as a predictor of attitudes of adolescents toward fighting. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 19(3), 323–340. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431699019003002
Arria, A., Borges, G., & Anthony, J. C. (1997). Fears and other suspected risk factors for carrying lethal weapons among urban youths of middle-school age. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 151(6), 555–560. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.1997.02170430021004
Assari, S., Caldwell, C. H., & Mincy, R. B. (2018). Maternal educational attainment at birth promotes future self-rated health of white but not black youth: A 15-year cohort of a national sample. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 7(5), 93. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm7050093
Bailey, S. L., Flewelling, R. L., & Rosenbaum, D. P. (1997). Characteristics of students who bring weapons to school. Journal of Adolescent Health, 20(4), 261–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1054-139X(96)00283-2
Ballard, M. E., Rattley, K. T., Fleming, W. C., & Kidder-Ashley, P. (2004). School aggression and dispositional aggression among middle school boys. RMLE Online, 27(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/19404476.2004.11658163
Banerjee, M., Rowley, S. J., & Johnson, D. J. (2015). Community violence and racial socialization: Their influence on the psychosocial well-being of African American college students. Journal of Black Psychology, 41(4), 358–383. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798414539174
Barlett, C. P., & Anderson, C. A. (2012). Direct and indirect relations between the Big 5 personality traits and aggressive and violent behavior. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(8), 870–875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.01.029
Bauer, J., Stamm, A., Virnich, K., Wissing, K., Müller, U., Wirsching, M., & Schaarschmidt, U. (2006). Correlation between burnout syndrome and psychological and psychosomatic symptoms among teachers. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 79(3), 199–204. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-005-0050-y
Bayh, B. (1975). Our Nation’s Schools--a Report Card: “A” in School Violence and Vandalism: Preliminary Report of the Subcommittee to Investigate Juvenile Delinquency, Based on Investigations, 1971–1975, by Birch Bayh, Chairman, to the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate. US Government Printing Office.
Beardslee, J., Docherty, M., Mulvey, E., Schubert, C., & Pardini, D. (2018). Childhood risk factors associated with adolescent gun carrying among Black and White males: An examination of self- protection, social influence, and antisocial propensity explanations. Law and Human Behavior, 42(2), 110–118. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000270
Bennett, M. D., Jr. (2007). Racial socialization and ethnic identity: Do they offer protection against problem behaviors for African American youth? Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 15(2–3), 137–161. https://doi.org/10.1300/J137v15n02_09
Bentley, K. L., Adams, V. N., & Stevenson, H. C. (2009). Racial socialization: Roots, processes & outcomes. In H. In Neville, B. M. Tynes, & S. O. Utsey (Eds.), Handbook of African American psychology (pp. 255–267). Sage Publications.
Bernheim, B. D., Ray, D., & Yeltekin, Ş. (2015). Poverty and self-control. Econometrica, 83(5), 1877–1911. https://doi.org/10.3982/ECTA11374
Bottiani, J. H., Bradshaw, C. P., & Mendelson, T. (2017). A multilevel examination of racial disparities in high school discipline: Black and white adolescents’ perceived equity, school belonging, and adjustment problems. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(4), 532–545. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000155
Boykin, A. W. (1983). The academic performance of Afro-American children. In J. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives (pp. 321–371). W. Freeman.
Boykin, A. W. (1986). The triple quandary and the schooling of Afro-American children. In U. Neisser (Ed.), The school achievement of minority children: New perspectives (pp. 57–92). Lawrence Erlbaum.
Boykin, A. W., Jagers, R. J., Ellison, C. M., & Albury, A. (1997). Communalism: Conceptualization and measurement of an Afrocultural social orientation. Journal of Black Studies, 27(3), 409–418.
Boykin, A. W., Lilja, A. J., & Tyler, K. M. (2004). The influence of communal vs. individual learning context on the academic performance in social studies of grade 4–5 African- Americans. Learning Environments Research, 7(3), 227–244. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-004-3294-7
Branscombe, N. R., Schmitt, M. T., & Harvey, R. D. (1999). Perceiving pervasive discrimination among African Americans: Implications for group identification and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(1), 135–148. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.1.135
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. Readings on the Development of Children, 2(1), 37–43.
Blaine, B., & Crocker, J. (1995). Religiousness, race, and psychological well-being: Exploring social psychological mediators. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21(10), 1031–1041. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672952110004
Burnside, A., Gaylord-Harden, N., So, S., & Voisin, D. (2018). A latent profile analysis of exposure to community violence and peer delinquency in African-American adolescents. Children and Youth Services Review, 91, 196–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.06.014
Butler-Barnes, S. T., Williams, T. T., & Chavous, T. M. (2012). Racial pride and religiosity among African American boys: Implications for academic motivation and achievement. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(4), 486–498. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-011-9675-1
Butler-Barnes, S. T., Martin, P. P., & Boyd, D. T. (2017). African American adolescents’ psychological well-being: The impact of parents’ religious socialization on adolescents’ religiosity. Race and Social Problems, 9, 115–126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-017-9199-8
Butler-Barnes, S. T., Martin, P. P., Hope, E. C., Copeland-Linder, N., & Lawrence Scott, M. (2018). Religiosity and coping: Racial stigma and psychological well-being among African American girls. Journal of Religion and Health, 57, 1980–1995. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-018-0644-9
Bynum, M. S., Burton, E. T., & Best, C. (2007). Racism experiences and psychological functioning in African American college freshmen: Is racial socialization a buffer? Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13(1), 64–71. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.13.1.64
Caldwell, C. H., Kohn-Wood, L. P., Schmeelk-Cone, K. H., Chavous, T. M., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2004). Racial discrimination and racial identity as risk or protective factors for violent behaviors in African American young adults. American Journal of Community Psychology, 33(1–2), 91–105. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:AJCP.0000014321.02367.dd
Carson, D. C., & Esbensen, F.-A. (2019). Gangs in school: Exploring the experiences of gang- involved youth. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 17(1), 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204017739678
Cedeno, L. A., Elias, M. J., Kelly, S., & Chu, B. C. (2010). School violence, adjustment, and the influence of hope on low-income, African American youth. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 80(2), 213–226. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2010.01025.x
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). Preventing school violence. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/youthviolence/schoolviolence/fastfact.html
Chatters, L. M., Taylor, R. J., Bullard, K. M., & Jackson, J. S. (2009). Race and ethnic differences in religious involvement: African Americans, Caribbean blacks and non- Hispanic whites. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 32(7), 1143–1163. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870802334531
Chavous, T. M., Bernat, D. H., Schmeelk-Cone, K., Caldwell, C. H., Kohn-Wood, L., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2003). Racial identity and academic attainment among African American adolescents. Child Development, 74(4), 1076–1090. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00593
Chavous, T. M., Rivas-Drake, D., Smalls, C., Griffin, T., & Cogburn, C. (2008). Gender matters, too: The influences of school racial discrimination and racial identity on academic engagement outcomes among African American adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 44(3), 637–654. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.637
Chui, W. H., & Chan, H. C. O. (2015). Self-control, school bullying perpetration, and victimization among Macanese adolescents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(6), 1751–1761. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-9979-3
Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning. (2020). Core SEL competencies. https://casel.org/core-competencies/
Cook, C. R., Duong, M. T., McIntosh, K., Fiat, A. E., Larson, M., Pullmann, M. D., & McGinnis, J. (2018). Addressing discipline disparities for Black male students: Linking malleable root causes to feasible and effective practices. School Psychology Review, 47(2), 135–152. https://doi.org/10.17105/SPR-2017-0026.V47-2
David-Ferdon, C., Vivolo-Kantor, A. M., Dahlberg, L. L., Marshall, K. J., Rainford, N., & Hall, J. E. (2016). A comprehensive technical package for the prevention of youth violence and associated risk behaviors. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
DeGruy, J., Kjellstrand, J. M., Briggs, H. E., & Brennan, E. M. (2012). Racial respect and racial socialization as protective factors for African American male youth. Journal of Black Psychology, 38(4), 395–420. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798411429744
DePrince, A. P., Weinzierl, K. M., & Combs, M. D. (2009). Executive function performance and trauma exposure in a community sample of children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33(6), 353–361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.08.002
DeWall, C. N., Baumeister, R. F., Stillman, T. F., & Gailliot, M. T. (2007). Violence restrained: Effects of self-regulation and its depletion on aggression. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43(1), 62–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2005.12.005
Dill, E., & Boykin, A. W. (2000). The comparative influence of individual, peer tutoring, and communal learning contexts on the text recall of African American children. Journal of Black Psychology, 26(1), 65–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798400026001004
Dinkes, R. (2009). Indicators of school crime and safety (2008). DIANE Publishing.
Docherty, M., Beardslee, J., Grimm, K. J., & Pardini, D. (2019). Distinguishing between-individual from within individual predictors of gun carrying among Black and White males across adolescence. Law and Human Behavior, 43(2), 144. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000320
Docherty, M., Sweeten, G., Craig, T., Yang, V. J. H., Decrop, R., Beardslee, J., Piquero, A., Clark, C., & Pardini, D. (2020). Prevalence and risk factors associated with carrying a gun to school during adolescence: A statewide study of middle and high school students. Journal of School Violence, 19(1), 35–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2019.1703718
Dotterer, A. M., McHale, S. M., & Crouter, A. C. (2009). Sociocultural factors and school engagement among African American youth: The roles of racial discrimination, racial socialization, and ethnic identity. Applied Developmental Science, 13(2), 61–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888690902801442
DuRant, R. H., Cadenhead, C., Pendergrast, R. A., Slavens, G., & Linder, C. W. (1994). Factors associated with the use of violence among urban black adolescents. American Journal of Public Health, 84(4), 612–617. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.84.4.612
Duru, E., & Balkis, M. (2018). Exposure to school violence at school and mental health of victimized adolescents: The mediation role of social support. Child Abuse & Neglect, 76(1), 342–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.11.016
Dykeman, C., Daehlin, W., Doyle, S., & Flamer, H. S. (1996). Psychological predictors of school-based violence: Implications for school counselors. The School Counselor, 44, 35–47. Retrieved August 13, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/23897978
Eisenbraun, K. D. (2007). Violence in schools: Prevalence, prediction, and prevention. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 12(4), 459–469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2006.09.008
Eitle, D., & Turner, R. J. (2002). Exposure to community violence and young adult crime: The effects of witnessing violence, traumatic victimization, and other stressful life events. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 39(2), 214–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/002242780203900204
Estévez, E., Murgui, S., & Musitu, G. (2009). Psychological adjustment in bullies and victims of school violence. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 24(4), 473–483. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03178762
Evans, G. W., & Kim, P. (2013). Childhood poverty, chronic stress, self-regulation, and coping. Child Development Perspectives, 7(1), 43–48. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12013
Eysenck, H. J. (1981). General features of the model. In A model for personality (pp. 1–37). Springer.
Eysenck, H. J. (1994). Personality and intelligence: Psychometric and experimental approaches. In R. J. Sternberg & P. Ruzgis (Eds.), Personality and intelligence (pp. 3–31). Cambridge University Press.
Eysenck, S. B., Easting, G., & Pearson, P. R. (1984). Age norms for impulsiveness, venturesomeness and empathy in children. Personality and Individual Differences, 5(3), 315–321. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(84)90070-9
Farrington, D. P. (1989). Early predictors of adolescent aggression and adult violence. Violence and Victims, 4(2), 79–100. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.4.2.79
Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2018). Uniform crime reporting. Crime in the United States: 2018. https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2018/crime-in-the-u.s.2018
Finkelhor, D., Moore, D., Hamby, S. L., & Straus, M. A. (1997). Sexually abused children in a national survey of parents: Methodological issues. Child Abuse & Neglect, 21(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(96)00127-5
Fleckman, J. M., Drury, S. S., Taylor, C. A., et al. (2016). Role of direct and indirect violence exposure on externalizing behavior in children. Journal of Urban Health, 93, 479–492. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-016-0052-y
Flouri, E., Midouhas, E., & Joshi, H. (2014). Family poverty and trajectories of children’s emotional and behavioural problems: The moderating roles of self-regulation and verbal cognitive ability. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42, 1043–1056. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9848-3
Forster, M., Grigsby, T., Unger, J., & Sussman, S. (2015). Associations between gun violence exposure, gang associations, and youth aggression: Implications for prevention and intervention programs. Journal of Criminology, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/963750
Gennetian, L. A., Wolf, S., Hill, H. D., & Morris, P. A. (2015). Intrayear household income dynamics and adolescent school behavior. Demography, 52(2), 455–483. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-015-0370-9
Ginwright, S. (2018). The future of healing: Shifting from trauma informed care to healing centered engagement. Occasional Paper, 25.
Good, M., & Willoughby, T. (2006). The role of spirituality versus religiosity in adolescent psychosocial adjustment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35(1), 39–53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-005-9018-1
Gooden, A. S., & McMahon, S. D. (2016). Thriving among African-American adolescents: Religiosity, religious support, and communalism. American Journal of Community Psychology, 57(1–2), 118–128. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12026
Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford University Press.
Greene, M. B. (2005). Reducing violence and aggression in schools. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 6(3), 236–253. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838005277406
Gregory, A., & Mosely, P. M. (2004). The discipline gap: Teachers’ views on the over- representation of African American students in the discipline system. Equity & Excellence in Education, 37(1), 18–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665680490429280
Gregory, A., & Weinstein, R. S. (2008). The discipline gap and African Americans: Defiance or cooperation in the high school classroom. Journal of School Psychology, 46(4), 455–475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2007.09.001
Grills, C., Cooke, D., Douglas, J., Subica, A., Villanueva, S., & Hudson, B. (2015). Culture, racial socialization, and positive African American youth development. Journal of Black Psychology, 42(4), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798415578004
Gumpel, T. P., & Sutherland, K. S. (2010). The relation between emotional and behavioral disorders and school-based violence. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15(5), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2010.06.003
Hardy, S. A., & Carlo, G. (2005). Religiosity and prosocial behaviours in adolescence: The mediating role of prosocial values. Journal of Moral Education, 34(2), 231–249. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240500127210
Hayes, D., Moore, A., Stapley, E., Humphrey, N., Mansfield, R., Santos, J., Ashworth, E., Patalay, P., Bonin, E. M., Moltrecht, B., Boehnke, J. R., & Deighton, J. (2019). Promoting mental health and wellbeing in schools: Examining Mindfulness, Relaxation and Strategies for Safety and Wellbeing in English primary and secondary schools: Study protocol for a multi-school, cluster randomised controlled trial (INSPIRE). Trials, 20(1), 640. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-019-3762-0
Henry, J. S., Lambert, S. F., & Smith Bynum, M. (2015). The protective role of maternal racial socialization for African American adolescents exposed to community violence. Journal of Family Psychology, 29(4), 548–557. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000135
Howell, J. C., & Egley, A., Jr. (2005). Moving risk factors into developmental theories of gang membership. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 3(4), 334–354. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204005278679
Humphries, M. L., Parker, B. L., & Jagers, R. J. (2000). Predictors of moral reasoning among African American children: A preliminary study. Journal of Black Psychology, 26(1), 51–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798400026001003
Hurd, N. M., Stoddard, S. A., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2013). Neighborhoods, social support, and African American adolescents’ mental health outcomes: A multilevel path analysis. Child Development, 84(3), 858–874. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12018
Hurley, E. A. (1999). Communalism among African-American students: A cultural analysis of group functioning and mathematics performance in three group learning structures (Dissertation). Howard University, Washington, D.C.
Hurley, E., Boykin, A. W., & Allen, B. (2005). Communal versus individual learning of a math-estimation task: African American children and the culture of learning contexts. The Journal of Psychology, 139(6), 513–527. https://doi.org/10.3200/JRLP.139.6.513-528
Hurley, E. A., Allen, B. A., & Boykin, A. W. (2009). Culture and the interaction of student ethnicity with reward structure in group learning. Cognition and Instruction, 27(2), 121–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/07370000902797346
Inzlicht, M., McKay, L., & Aronson, J. (2006). Stigma as ego depletion: How being the target of prejudice affects self-control. Psychological Science, 17(3), 262–269. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01695.x
Jagers, R. J., & Mock, L. O. (1993). Culture and social outcomes among inner-city African American children: An Afrographic exploration. Journal of Black Psychology, 19(4), 391–405. https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984930194002
Jagers, R. J., Smith, P., Mock, L. O., & Dill, E. (1997). An Afrocultural social ethos: Component orientations and some social implications. Journal of Black Psychology, 23(4), 328–343. https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984970234002
Jagers, R. J., Morgan-Lopez, A. A., Howard, T. L., Browne, D. C., Flay, B. R., & Coinvestigators, A. A. (2007a). Mediators of the development and prevention of violent behavior. Prevention Science, 8(3), 171–179. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-007-0067-4
Jagers, R. J., Sydnor, K., Mouttapa, M., & Flay, B. R. (2007b). Protective factors associated with preadolescent violence: Preliminary work on a cultural model. American Journal of Community Psychology, 40(1–2), 138–145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-007-9121-4
James, K., Bunch, J., & Clay-Warner, J. (2014). Perceived injustice and school violence: An application of general strain theory. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 13(2), 169–189. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204014521251
Jiménez-Barbero, J. A., Ruiz-Hernández, J. A., Llor-Zaragoza, L., Pérez-García, M., & Llor- Esteban, B. (2016). Effectiveness of anti-bullying school programs: A meta- analysis. Children and Youth Services Review, 61, 165–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2015.12.015
Johnson, S. L. (2009). Improving the school environment to reduce school violence: A review of the literature. Journal of School Health, 79(10), 451–465. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2009.00435.x
Johnson, V. E., & Carter, R. T. (2020). Black cultural strengths and psychosocial well-being: An empirical analysis with Black American adults. Journal of Black Psychology, 46(1), 55–89. https://doi-org.ez.lib.jjay.cuny.edu/10.1177/0095798419889752
Johnson, S. M., Kraft, M. A., & Papay, J. P. (2012). How context matters in high-need schools: The effects of teachers’ working conditions on their professional satisfaction and their students’ achievement. Teachers College Record, 114(10), 1–39.
Kann, L., McMann, T., Harris, W., et al. (2018). Youth risk behavior surveillance-United States, 2017. MMWR Surveillance Summaries, 67(SS-8), 1–114.
Kilewer, W. (2013). The role of neighborhood collective efficacy and fear of crime in socialization of coping with violence in low-income communities. Journal of Community Psychology, 41(8), 920–930. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21573
Kim, D. H., Harty, J., Takahashi, L., & Voisin, D. R. (2018). The protective effects of religious beliefs on behavioral health factors among low income African American adolescents in Chicago. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(2), 355–364. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0891-5
Kim, Y. K., Sanders, J. E., Makubuya, T., & Yu, M. (2020). Risk factors of academic performance: Experiences of school violence, school safety concerns, and depression by gender. In Child& youth care forum. Springer.
Kodjoe, C. M., Auinger, P., & Ryan, S. A. (2003). Demographic, intrinsic, and extrinsic factors associated with weapon carrying at school. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 157(1), 96–103. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.157.1.96
Kodžopeljić, J., Smederevac, S., Mitrović, D., Dinić, B., & Čolović, P. (2014). School bullying in adolescence and personality traits: A person-centered approach. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29(4), 736–757. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260513505216
Kunesh, C. E., & Noltemeyer, A. (2019). Understanding disciplinary disproportionality: Stereotypes shape pre-service teachers’ beliefs about black boys’ behavior. Urban Education, 54(4), 471–498. https://doi.org/10.1177/004208591562333
Levinson, M. H. (2006). Anger management and violence prevention: A holistic solution. ETC: A Review of General Semantics, 63(2), 187–199. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42578632
Lewis, K. M., DuBois, D. L., Bavarian, N., Acock, A., Silverthorn, N., Day, J., et al. (2013). Effects of Positive Action on the emotional health of urban youth: A cluster-randomized trial. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53(6), 706–711.
Lochman, J. E., & Wayland, K. K. (1994). Aggression, social acceptance, and race as predictors of negative adolescent outcomes. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 33(7), 1026–1035. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199409000-00014
Lösel, F., & Farrington, D. P. (2012). Direct protective and buffering protective factors in the development of youth violence. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 43(2), S8–S23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2012.04.029
Losen, D. J, Hodson, C. L, Keith II, M. A, Morrison, K., & Belway, S. (2015). Are we closing the school discipline gap? UCLA: The Civil Rights Project / Proyecto Derechos Civiles. Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2t36g571
Low, S., & Espelage, D. (2014). Conduits from community violence exposure to peer aggression and victimization: Contributions of parental monitoring, impulsivity, and deviancy. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61(2), 221–223. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035207
Ludwig, K. A., & Warren, J. S. (2009). Community violence, school-related protective factors, and psychosocial outcomes in urban youth. Psychology in the Schools, 46(10), 1061–1073. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20444
Mateu-Gelabert, P., & Lune, H. (2003). School violence: The bidirectional conflict flow between neighborhood and school. City & Community, 2(4), 353–369. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1535-6841.2003.00060.x
Mattis, J. S., & Jagers, R. J. (2001). A relational framework for the study of religiosity and spirituality in the lives of African Americans. Journal of Community Psychology, 29(5), 519–539. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.1034
Mattis, J. S., Ahluwalia, M. K., Cowie, S. E., & Kirkland-Harris, A. M. (2006). Ethnicity, culture, and spiritual development. In E. C. Roehlkepartain, P. E. King, L. Wagener, & P. L. Benson (Eds.), The handbook of spiritual development in childhood and adolescence (pp. 283–296).
McGee, Z. T. (2003). Community violence and adolescent development: An examination of risk and protective factors among African American youth. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 19(3), 293–314. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986203254527
McGee, Z. (2015). Risk, protective factors, and symptomatology among urban adolescents: Findings of a research study on youth violence and victimization. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 54(6), 429–444. https://doi.org/10.1080/10509674.2015.1056902
McGee, Z. T., & Baker, S. R. (2002). Impact of violence on problem behavior among adolescents: Risk factors among an urban sample. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 18(1), 74–93. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986202018001006
McGee, Z. T., Logan, K., Samuel, J., & Nunn, T. (2017). A multivariate analysis of gun violence among urban youth: The impact of direct victimization, indirect victimization, and victimization among peers. Cogent Social Sciences, 3(1), 1328772. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2017.1328772
McGee, Z., Alexander, C., Cunningham, K., Hamilton, C., & James, C. (2019). Assessing the linkage between exposure to violence and victimization, coping, and adjustment among urban youth: Findings from a research study on adolescents. Children, 6, 36. https://doi.org/10.3390/children6030036
Miranda, R., Oriol, X., & Amutio, A. (2019). Risk and protective factors at school: Reducing bullies and promoting positive bystanders’ behaviors in adolescence. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 60(2), 106–115. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12513
Molock, S. D., Puri, R., Matlin, S., & Barksdale, C. (2006). Relationship between religious coping and suicidal behaviors among African American adolescents. Journal of Black Psychology, 32(3), 366–389. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798406290466
Monroe, C. R. (2005). Why are “bad boys” always Black?: Causes of disproportionality in school discipline and recommendations for change. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 79(1), 45–50. https://doi.org/10.3200/TCHS.79.1.45-50
Morgan, R. E., & Odekerk, G. (2019). Criminal victimization, 2018. Bureau of Justice Statistics. NCJ, 253043.
Musu, L., Zhang, A., Wang, K., Zhang, J., & Oudekerk, B. (2019). Indicators of school crime and safety: 2018. Prepared for the National Center of Education Statistics. U.S. Department of Education. U.S. Department of Justice: Office of Justice Programs
National Center for Education Statistics. (1981). Violence in the schools: How much and what to do? Research Action Brief No.17, ED 208 453, 1–5. ERIC.
National Institute of Education (U.S.). (1978). Violent schools-safe schools: The safe school study report to the Congress. The Institute.
Nickerson, A. B., Shisler, S., Eiden, R. D., Ostrov, J. M., Schuetze, P., Godleski, S. A., & Delmerico, A. M. (2020). A longitudinal study of gun violence attitudes: Role of childhood aggression and exposure to violence, and early adolescent bullying perpetration and victimization. Journal of School Violence, 19(1), 62–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2019.1703716
Nordberg, A., Twis, M. K., Stevens, M. A., & Hatcher, S. S. (2018). Precarity and structural racism in Black youth encounters with police. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 35(5), 511–518. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-018-0540-x
Ozer, E. J., & Weinstein, R. S. (2004). Urban adolescents’ exposure to community violence: The role of support, school safety, and social constraints in a school-based sample of boys and girls. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33(3), 463–476. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3303_4
Palacios-Barrios, E. E., & Hanson, J. L. (2019). Poverty and self-regulation: Connecting psychosocial processes, neurobiology, and the risk for psychopathology. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 90, 52–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2018.12.012
Parham, T. A. (2009). Foundations for an African American psychology: Extending roots to an ancient Kemetic past. In H. Neville, B. M. Tynes, & S. O. Utsey (Eds.), Handbook of African American psychology (pp. 3–18). Sage Publications.
Patchin, J. W., Huebner, B. M., McCluskey, J. D., Varano, S. P., & Bynum, T. S. (2006). Exposure to Community Violence and Childhood Delinquency. Crime & Delinquency, 52(2), 307–332. https://doi.org.ccsu.idm.oclc.org/10.1177/0011128704267476
Patrick, C. J. (2008). Psychophysiological correlates of aggression and violence: An integrative review. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences, 363(1503), 2543–2555. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2008.0028
Patton, D. U., Woolley, M. E., & Hong, J. S. (2012). Exposure to violence, student fear, and low academic achievement: African American males in the critical transition to high school. Children and Youth Services Review, 34(2), 388–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.11.009
Pedersen, S. L., Molina, B. S., Belendiuk, K. A., & Donovan, J. E. (2012). Racial differences in the development of impulsivity and sensation seeking from childhood into adolescence and their relation to alcohol use. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 36(10), 1794–1802.
Peguero, A. A. (2011). Violence, schools, and dropping out: Racial and ethnic disparities in the educational consequence of student victimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26(18), 3753–3772. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260511403764
Peguero, A. A., Popp, A. M., Latimore, T. L., Shekarkhar, Z., & Koo, D. J. (2011). Social control theory and school misbehavior: Examining the role of race and ethnicity. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 9(3), 259–275. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204010389197
Peguero, A. A., Ovink, S. M., & Li, Y. L. (2016). Social bonding to school and educational inequality: Race/ethnicity, dropping out, and the significance of place. Sociological Perspectives, 59(2), 317–344. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731121415586479
Petts, R. J., & Jolliff, A. (2008). Religion and adolescent depression: The impact of race and gender. Review of Religious Research, 49(4), 395–414. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20447514
Pham, T., Schapiro, L., Majnu, J., & Adesman, A. (2017). Weapon carrying among victims of bullying. Pediatrics, 140(6), e20170353.
Pyrooz, D. C., Decker, S. H., & Webb, V. J. (2014). The ties that bind: Desistance from gangs. Crime & Delinquency, 60(4), 491–516. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128710372191
Ragatz, L. L., Anderson, R. J., Fremouw, W., & Schwartz, R. (2011). Criminal thinking patterns, aggression styles, and the psychopathic traits of late high school bullies and bully-victims. Aggressive Behavior, 37(2), 145–160. https://doi-org.ccsu.idm.oclc.org/10.1002/ab.20377
Rawles, P. (2010). The link between poverty, the proliferation of violence and the development of traumatic stress among urban youth in the United States to school violence: A trauma informed, social justice approach to school violence. Forum on Public Policy Online, n. 4.
Rosenthal, R. (2002). Covert communication in classrooms, clinics, courtrooms, and cubicles. American Psychologist, 57(11), 839–849. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.57.11.839
Rowley, S. J., Sellers, R. M., Chavous, T. M., & Smith, M. A. (1998). The relationship between racial identity and self-esteem in African American college and high school students. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(3), 715–724. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.715
Salas-Wright, C. P., Vaughn, M. G., & Maynard, B. R. (2014). Buffering effects of religiosity on crime: Testing the invariance hypothesis across gender and developmental period. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 41(6), 673–691. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854813514579
Salas-Wright, C. P., Vaughn, M. G., & Maynard, B. R. (2015). Profiles of religiosity and their association with risk behavior among emerging adults in the United States. Emerging Adulthood, 3(2), 67–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854813514579
Salas-Wright, C. P., Vaughn, M. G., Maynard, B. R., Clark, T. T., & Snyder, S. (2017). Public or private religiosity: Which is protective for adolescent substance use and by what pathways? Youth & Society, 49(2), 228–253. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X14531603
Sellers, R. M., Caldwell, C. H., Schmeelk-Cone, K. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2003). Racial identity, racial discrimination, perceived stress, and psychological distress among African American young adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(3), 302–317. https://doi.org/10.2307/1519781
Sellers, R. M., Smith, M. A., Shelton, J. N., Rowley, S. A., & Chavous, T. M. (1998). Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African American racial identity. Personality and social psychology review, 2(1), 18–39. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0201_2
Semprevivo, L. K., Agnich, L. E., & Peguero, A. A. (2020). Is victimization associated with carrying a weapon? Investigating the intersection of sex and race/ethnicity. Journal of School Violence, 19(1), 20–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2019.1703714
Shapiro, J. P., Dorman, R. L., Burkes, W. M., Welker, C. J., & Clough, J. B. (1997). Development and factor analysis of a measure of youth attitudes toward guns and violence. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26(3), 311–320. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp2603_10
Shirley, E. L., & Cornell, D. G. (2012). The contribution of student perceptions of school climate to understanding the disproportionate punishment of African American students in a middle school. School Psychology International, 33(2), 115–134. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034311406815
Sikkink, D., & Hernandez, E. I. (2003). Religion matters: Predicting schooling success among Latino youth. Interim Reports. Institute for Latino Studies. University of Notre Dame.
Skiba, R. J., & Losen, D. J. (2016). From reaction to prevention: Turning the page on school discipline. American Educator, 39(4), 4–11.
Smith, D., & Smith, B. (2006). Perceptions of violence: The views of teachers who left urban schools. The High School Journal, 89(3), 34–42. Retrieved August 14, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/40364231
Spencer, M. B., Fegley, S. G., & Harpalani, V. (2003). A theoretical and empirical examination of identity as coping: Linking coping resources to the self-processes of African American youth. Applied Developmental Science, 7(3), 181–188. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532480XADS0703_9
Stern, A., & Petrosino, A. (2018). What do we know about the effects of school-based law enforcement on school safety? WestEd.
Stevenson, H. C., Reed, J., Bodison, P., & Bishop, A. (1997). Racism stress management racial socialization beliefs and the experience of depression and anger in African American youth. Youth & Society, 29(2), 197–222. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X97029002003
Taylor, T., Esbensen, F.-A., Brick, B., & Freng, A. (2010). Exploring the measurement quality of an attitudinal scale of street code-related violence: Similarities and differences across groups and contexts. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 8(3), 187–212. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204010361297
Thomas, D. E., Townsend, T. G., & Belgrave, F. Z. (2003). The influence of cultural and racial identification on the psychosocial adjustment of inner-city African American children in school. American Journal of Community Psychology, 32(3–4), 217–228. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:AJCP.0000004743.37592.26
Twenge, J. M., & Crocker, J. (2002). Race and self-esteem: Meta-analyses comparing whites, blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and American Indians and comment on Gray-Little and Hafdahl (2000). Psychological Bulletin, 128(3), 371–408. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.3.371
Tyler, K. M., Boykin, A. W., Boelter, C. M., & Dillihunt, M. L. (2005). Examining mainstream and Afro-cultural value socialization in African American households. Journal of Black Psychology, 31(3), 291–310. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798405278199
Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Diversi, M., & Fine, M. A. (2002). Ethnic identity and self-esteem of Latino adolescents: Distinctions among the Latino populations. Journal of Adolescent Research, 17(3), 303–327. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558402173005
Valois, R. F., Paxton, R. J., Zullig, K. J., & Huebner, E. S. (2006). Life satisfaction and violent behaviors among middle school students. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 15(6), 695–707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-006-9043-z
Varela, J. J., Zimmerman, M. A., Ryan, A. M., Stoddard, S. A., Heinze, J. E., & Alfaro, J. (2018). Life satisfaction, school satisfaction, and school violence: A mediation analysis for Chilean adolescent victims and perpetrators. Child Indicators Research, 11(2), 487–505. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-016-9442-7
Vazsonyi, A. T., Mikuška, J., & Kelley, E. L. (2017). It’s time: A meta-analysis on the self- control-deviance link. Journal of Criminal Justice, 48(48–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2016.10.001
Wahab, A. A., & Sakip, S. R. M. (2019). An overview of environmental design relationship with school bullying and future crime. Environment-Behaviour Proceedings Journal, 4(10), 11–18.
Wallace, C. M., McGee, Z. T., Malone-Colon, L., & Boykin, A. W. (2018). The impact of culture-based protective factors on reducing rates of violence among African American adolescent and young adult males. Journal of Social Issues, 74(3), 635–651. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12287
Wandersman, A., & Nation, M. (1998). Urban neighborhoods and mental health: Psychological contributions to understanding toxicity, resilience, and interventions. American Psychologist, 53(6), 647–656. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.53.6.647
Wang, K., Chen, Y., Zhang, J., & Oudekerk, B. A. (2020). Indicators of school crime and safety: 2019. NCES 2020-063/NCJ 254485. Prepared for the National Center of Education Statistics. U.S. Department of Education. U.S. Department of Justice: Office of Justice Programs
Welton, E., Vakil, S., & Ford, B. (2014). Beyond bullying: Consideration of additional research for the assessment and prevention of potential rampage school violence in the United States. Education Research International, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/109297
Whaley, A. L., & McQueen, J. P. (2020). Evaluating Africentric violence prevention for adolescent black males in an urban public school: An idiothetic approach. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29(4), 942–954. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-016379
Wilcox, P., Augustine, M. C., & Clayton, R. R. (2006). Physical environment and crime and misconduct in Kentucky schools. Journal of Primary Prevention, 27(3), 293–313. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-006-0034-z
Williams, L. M., & Peguero, A. A. (2013). The impact of school bullying on racial/ethnic achievement. Race and Social Problems, 5(4), 296–308. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-013-9105-y
Williams, D. R., & Williams-Morris, R. (2000). Racism and mental health: The African American experience. Ethnicity and Health, 5(3–4), 243–268. https://doi.org/10.1080/713667453
Zainuddin, R., & Taluja, H. (1990). Aggression and locus of control among undergraduate students. Journal of Personality and Clinical Studies, 6(2), 211–215.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Wallace, C.M., Dixon, R.D., McGee, Z.T., Malone-Colon, L. (2023). Urban School Violence: Responding with Culture and Protective Factors Among Youth of Color. In: Miller, T.W. (eds) School Violence and Primary Prevention. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13134-9_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13134-9_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-13133-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-13134-9
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)