Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Aetiology and Epidemiology of Breast Cancer

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Digital Mammography

  • 981 Accesses

Abstract

Epidemiologic research has established various risk factors which are significant in breast cancer aetiology and may be biological, behavioural, social, or physical. The risk factors include modifiable and non-modifiable elements, which act directly or indirectly and are often interrelated. The risk association may vary over time and is relative to the period and length of exposure. This chapter will focus on incidence and mortality rates of breast cancer worldwide together with risk factors associated with the development of breast cancer.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Hiatt RA, Engmann NJ, Balke K, Rehkopf DH. A complex systems model of breast cancer etiology: the paradigm II conceptual model. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers. 2020;29:1720–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Stewart BW, Wild C. World cancer report 2014. Geneva: International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Zendehdel M, Niakan B, Keshtkar A, Rafiei E, Salamat F. Subtypes of benign breast disease as a risk factor for breast cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis protocol. Iran J Med Sci. 2018;43(1):1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Broustas CG, Lieberman HB. DNA damage response genes and the development of cancer metastasis. Radiat Res. 2014;181(2):111–30.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Sinn HP, Kreipe H. A brief overview of the WHO classification of breast tumors, 4th edition, focusing on issues and updates from the 3rd edition. Breast Care. 2013;8(2):149–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Parkin DM, Fernández LMG. Use of statistics to assess the global burden of breast cancer. Breast J. 2006;12(Suppl 1):70–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Worldwide cancer data. World Cancer Research Fund. https://www.wcrf.org/dietandcancer/cancer-trends/worldwide-cancer-data. Accessed 12 Jul 2021.

  8. Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Siegel RL, Torre LA, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018;68(6):394–424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Ziegler RG, Hoover RN, Pike MC, Hildesheim A, Nomura AM, West DW, Wu-Williams AH, Kolonel LN, Horn-Ross PL, Rosenthal JF, Hyer MB. Migration patterns and breast cancer risk in Asian-American women. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1993;85(22):1819–27.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Cancer Research UK. Cancer incidence for common cancers. https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/health-professional/cancer-statistics/incidence/common-cancers-compared. Accessed 10 May 2021.

  11. World Health Organisation. Cancer tomorrow. https://gco.iarc.fr/tomorrow/graphic. Accessed 10 May 2021.

  12. Weedon-Fekjær H, Romundstad PR, Vatten LJ. Modern mammography screening and breast cancer mortality: population study. BMJ. 2014;348:3701.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Seely JM, Alhassan T. Screening for breast cancer in 2018—what should we be doing today? Curr Oncol. 2018;25:115–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Yalaza M, İnan A, Bozer M. Male breast cancer. J Breast Health. 2016;12(1):1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Abdelwahab Yousef AJ. Male breast cancer: epidemiology and risk factors. Semin Oncol. 2017;44(4):267–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Thakur P, Seam RK, Gupta MK, Gupta M, Sharma M, Fotedar V. Breast cancer risk factor evaluation in a Western Himalayan state: a case-control study and comparison with the Western World. South Asian J Cancer. 2017;6(3):106–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Moser K, Sellars S, Wheaton M, Cooke J, Duncan A, Maxwell A, Michell M, Wilson M, Beral V, Peto R, Richards M. Extending the age range for breast screening in england: pilot study to assess the feasibility and acceptability of randomization. J Med Screen. 2011;18(2):96–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Assi HA, Khoury KE, Dbouk H, Khalil LE, Mouhieddine TH, El Saghir NS. Epidemiology and prognosis of breast cancer in young women. J Thorac Dis. 2013;5(Suppl 1):2–8.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Clendenen TV, Ge W, Koenig KL, Afanasyeva Y, Agnoli C, Brinton LA, Darvishian F, Dorgan JF, Eliassen AH, Falk RT, Hallmans G. Breast cancer risk prediction in women aged 35–50 years: impact of including sex hormone concentrations in the Gail model. Breast Cancer Res. 2019;21(1):1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Stapelkamp C, Holmberg L, Tataru D, Møller H, Robinson D. Predictors of early death in female patients with breast cancer in the UK: a cohort study. BMJ Open. 2011;1(2):e000247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Zhang X, Tworoger SS, Eliassen AH, Hankinson SE. Postmenopausal plasma sex hormone levels and breast cancer risk over 20 years of follow-up. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2013;137(3):883–92.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Walker K, Bratton DJ, Frost C. Premenopausal endogenous oestrogen levels and breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Br J Cancer. 2011;105(9):1451–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Dorgan JF, Stanczyk FZ, Egleston BL, Kahle LL, Shaw CM, Spittle CS, Godwin AK, Brinton LA. Prospective case-control study of serum mullerian inhibiting substance and breast cancer risk. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2009;101(21):1501–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Eliassen AH, Zeleniuch-Jacquotte A, Rosner B, Hankinson SE. Plasma anti-Müllerian hormone concentrations and risk of breast cancer among premenopausal women in the Nurses’ Health Studies. Cancer Epidemiol Prev Biomarkers. 2016;25(5):854–60.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Winkel RR, von Euler-Chelpin M, Nielsen M, Petersen K, Lillholm M, Nielsen MB, Lynge E, Uldall WY, Vejborg I. Mammographic density and structural features can individually and jointly contribute to breast cancer risk assessment in mammography screening: a case–control study. BMC Cancer. 2016;16(1):1–2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Zhang X, Rice M, Tworoger SS, Rosner BA, Eliassen AH, Tamimi RM, Joshi AD, Lindstrom S, Qian J, Colditz GA, Willett WC. Addition of a polygenic risk score, mammographic density, and endogenous hormones to existing breast cancer risk prediction models: a nested case–control study. PLoS Med. 2018;15(9):e1002644.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Engmann NJ, Golmakani MK, Miglioretti DL, Sprague BL, Kerlikowske K. Breast cancer surveillance consortium. population-attributable risk proportion of clinical risk factors for breast cancer. JAMA Oncol. 2017;3(9):1228–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Byrne C, Ursin G, Martin CF, Peck JD, Cole EB, Zeng D, Kim E, Yaffe MD, Boyd NF, Heiss G, McTiernan A. Mammographic density change with estrogen and progestin therapy and breast cancer risk. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2017;109(9):djx001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Boyd NF, Dite GS, Stone J, Gunasekara A, English DR, McCredie MR, Giles GG, Tritchler D, Chiarelli A, Yaffe MJ, Hopper JL. Heritability of mammographic density, a risk factor for breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2002;347(12):886–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Ursin G, Lillie EO, Lee E, Cockburn M, Schork NJ, Cozen W, Parisky YR, Hamilton AS, Astrahan MA, Mack T. The relative importance of genetics and environment on mammographic density. Cancer Epidemiol Prev Biomarkers. 2009;18(1):102–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Boyd NF, Guo H, Martin LJ, Sun L, Stone J, Fishell E, Jong RA, Hislop G, Chiarelli A, Minkin S, Yaffe MJ. Mammographic density and the risk and detection of breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2007;356(3):227–36.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Destounis S, Johnston L, Highnam R, Arieno A, Morgan R, Chan A. Using volumetric breast density to quantify the potential masking risk of mammographic density. Am J Roentgenol. 2017;208(1):222–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Onega T, Beaber EF, Sprague BL, Barlow WE, Haas JS, Tosteson AN, Schnall M, Armstrong K, Schapira MM, Geller B, Weaver DL. Breast cancer screening in an era of personalized regimens: a conceptual model and National Cancer Institute initiative for risk-based and preference-based approaches at a population level. Cancer. 2014;120(19):2955–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Schousboe JT, Kerlikowske K, Loh A, Cummings SR. Personalizing mammography by breast density and other risk factors for breast cancer: analysis of health benefits and cost-effectiveness. Ann Intern Med. 2011;155(1):10–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Vinnicombe SJ. Breast density: why all the fuss? Clin Radiol. 2018;73(4):334–57.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Oliver A, Tortajada M, Lladó X, Freixenet J, Ganau S, Tortajada L, Vilagran M, Sentís M, Martí R. Breast density analysis using an automatic density segmentation algorithm. J Digit Imaging. 2015;28(5):604–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Sharma N. Special issue on breast imaging: part 1. Clin Radiol. 2018;73(4):325–6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Bodicoat DH, Schoemaker MJ, Jones ME, McFadden E, Griffin J, Ashworth A, Swerdlow AJ. Timing of pubertal stages and breast cancer risk: the Breakthrough Generations Study. Breast Cancer Res. 2014;16(1):1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Li H, Sun X, Miller E, Wang Q, Tao P, Liu L, Zhao Y, Wang M, Qi Y, Li J. BMI, reproductive factors, and breast cancer molecular subtypes: a case-control study and meta-analysis. J Epidemiol. 2017;27(4):143–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Momenimovahed Z, Salehiniya H. Epidemiological characteristics of and risk factors for breast cancer in the world. Breast Cancer. 2019;11:151–64.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Laamiri FZ, Hasswane N, Kerbach A, Aguenaou H, Taboz Y, Benkirane H, Mrabet M, Amina B. Risk factors associated with a breast cancer in a population of Moroccan women whose age is less than 40 years: a case control study. Pan Afr Med J. 2016;24(1):19.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Balekouzou A, Yin P, Pamatika CM, Bekolo CE, Nambei SW, Djeintote M, Kota K, Mossoro-Kpinde CD, Shu C, Yin M, Fu Z. Reproductive risk factors associated with breast cancer in women in Bangui: a case–control study. BMC Womens Health. 2017;17(1):1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Ozsoy A, Barça N, Dolek BA, Aktaş H, Elverici E, Araz L, Ozkaraoğlu O. The relationship between breast cancer and risk factors: a single-center study. Eur J Breast Health. 2017;13(3):145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Cancer B. Menarche, menopause, and breast cancer risk: individual participant meta-analysis, including 118 964 women with breast cancer from 117 epidemiological studies. Lancet Oncol. 2012;13(11):1141–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Lichtenstein P, Holm NV, Verkasalo PK, Iliadou A, Kaprio J, Koskenvuo M, Pukkala E, Skytthe A, Hemminki K. Environmental and heritable factors in the causation of cancer—analyses of cohorts of twins from Sweden, Denmark, and Finland. N Engl J Med. 2000;343(2):78–85.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Familial breast cancer: collaborative reanalysis of individual data from 52 epidemiological studies including 58 209 women with breast cancer and 101 986 women without the disease. Lancet. 2001;358(9291):1389–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Ahern TP, Sprague BL, Bissell MC, Miglioretti DL, Buist DS, Braithwaite D, Kerlikowske K. Family history of breast cancer, breast density, and breast cancer risk in a US breast cancer screening population. Cancer Epidemiol Prev Biomarkers. 2017;26(6):938–44.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Bravi F, Decarli A, Russo AG. Risk factors for breast cancer in a cohort of mammographic screening program: a nested case-control study within the FRiCaM study. Cancer Med. 2018;7(5):2145–52.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Francies FZ, Hull R, Khanyile R, Dlamini Z. Breast cancer in low-middle income countries: abnormality in splicing and lack of targeted treatment options. Am J Cancer Res. 2020;10(5):1568–91.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Metcalfe KA, Finch A, Poll A, Horsman D, Kim-Sing C, Scott J, Royer R, Sun P, Narod SA. Breast cancer risks in women with a family history of breast or ovarian cancer who have tested negative for a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation. Br J Cancer. 2009;100(2):421–5.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Brewer HR, Jones ME, Schoemaker MJ, Ashworth A, Swerdlow AJ. Family history and risk of breast cancer: an analysis accounting for family structure. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2017;165(1):193–200.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Ford D, Easton DF, Stratton M, Narod S, Goldgar D, Devilee P, Bishop DT, Weber B, Lenoir G, Chang-Claude J, Sobol H. Genetic heterogeneity and penetrance analysis of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes in breast cancer families. Am J Hum Genetics. 1998;62(3):676–89.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Godet I, Gilkes DM. BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations and treatment strategies for breast cancer. Integr Cancer Sci Ther. 2017;4(1).

    Google Scholar 

  54. Wendt C, Margolin S. Identifying breast cancer susceptibility genes–a review of the genetic background in familial breast cancer. Acta Oncol. 2019;58(2):135–46.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Turnbull C, Rahman N. Genetic predisposition to breast cancer: past, present, and future. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet. 2008;9(1):321–45.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Rubino C, Arriagada R, Delaloge S, Lê MG. Relation of risk of contralateral breast cancer to the interval since the first primary tumour. Br J Cancer. 2010;102(1):213–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Ramin C, Withrow DR, Davis Lynn BC, Gierach GL, Berrington de González A. Risk of contralateral breast cancer according to first breast cancer characteristics among women in the USA, 1992–2016. Breast Cancer Res. 2021;23(1):24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Stachs A, Stubert J, Reimer T, Hartmann S. Benign breast disease in women. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2019;116(33–34):565–74.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Salamat F, Niakan B, Keshtkar A, Rafiei E, Zendehdel M. Subtypes of benign breast disease as a risk factor of breast cancer: a systematic review and meta analyses. Iran J Med Sci. 2018;43(4):355–64.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Johansson A, Christakou AE, Iftimi A, Eriksson M, Tapia J, Skoog L. Characterization of benign breast diseases and association with age , hormonal factors , and family history of breast cancer among women in Sweden. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(6):1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Lopez-Garcia MA, Geyer FC, Lacroix-Triki M, Marchió C, Reis-Filho JS. Breast cancer precursors revisited: molecular features and progression pathways. Histopathology. 2010;57(2):171–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Li CI, Malone KE, Saltzman BS, Daling JR. Risk of invasive breast carcinoma among women diagnosed with ductal carcinoma in situ and lobular carcinoma in situ, 1988–2001. Cancer. 2006;106(10):2104–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Innos K, Horn-Ross PL. Risk of second primary breast cancers among women with ductal carcinoma in situ of the breast. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2008;111(3):531–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Visser LL, Elshof LE, Schaapveld M, Van de Vijver K, Groen EJ, Almekinders MM, Bierman C, Van Leeuwen FE, Rutgers EJ, Schmidt MK, Lips EH. Clinicopathological risk factors for an invasive breast cancer recurrence after ductal carcinoma in situ—a nested case–control study. Clin Cancer Res. 2018;24(15):3593–601.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Mannu GS, Wang Z, Broggio J, Charman J, Cheung S, Kearins O, Dodwell D, Darby SC. Invasive breast cancer and breast cancer mortality after ductal carcinoma in situ in women attending for breast screening in England, 1988–2014: population based observational cohort study. BMJ. 2020;369:m1570.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Wong SM, King T, Boileau J-F, Barry WT, Golshan M. Population-based analysis of breast cancer incidence and survival outcomes in women diagnosed with lobular carcinoma in Situ. Ann Surg Oncol. 2017;24(9):2509–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Begg CB, Ostrovnaya I, Carniello JV, Sakr RA, Giri D, Towers R, Schizas M, De Brot M, Andrade VP, Mauguen A, Seshan VE. Clonal relationships between lobular carcinoma in situ and other breast malignancies. Breast Cancer Res. 2016;18(1):1–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Kerlikowske K, Gard CC, Tice JA, Ziv E, Cummings SR, Miglioretti DL. Risk factors that increase risk of estrogen receptor–positive and–negative breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2017;109(5):djw276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Kyrgiou M, Kalliala I, Markozannes G, Gunter MJ, Paraskevaidis E, Gabra H, Martin-Hirsch P, Tsilidis KK. Adiposity and cancer at major anatomical sites: umbrella review of the literature. BMJ. 2017;356:j477.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Miller B, Chalfant H, Thomas A, Wellberg E, Henson C, McNally MW, Grizzle WE, Jain A, McNally LR. Diabetes, obesity, and inflammation: impact on clinical and radiographic features of breast cancer. Int J Mol Sci. 2021 Jan;22(5):2757.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Hormones E, Breast Cancer Collaborative Group. Circulating sex hormones and breast cancer risk factors in postmenopausal women: reanalysis of 13 studies. Br J Cancer. 2011;105(5):709.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Samavat H, Kurzer MS. Estrogen metabolism and breast cancer. Cancer Lett. 2015;356(2 Pt A):231–43.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Denis GV, Palmer JR. ‘Obesity-Associated’ breast cancer in lean women: metabolism and inflammation as critical modifiers of risk. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 2017;10(5):267–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Suzuki R, Orsini N, Saji S, Key TJ, Wolk A. Body weight and incidence of breast cancer defined by estrogen and progesterone receptor status—a meta-analysis. Int J Cancer. 2009;124(3):698–712.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Gaudet MM, Carter BD, Patel AV, Teras LR, Jacobs EJ, Gapstur SM. Waist circumference, body mass index, and postmenopausal breast cancer incidence in the Cancer Prevention Study-II Nutrition Cohort. Cancer Causes Control. 2014;25(6):737–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Lee K, Kruper L, Dieli-Conwright CM, Mortimer JE. The impact of obesity on breast cancer diagnosis and treatment. Curr Oncol Rep. 2019;21(5):41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  77. Kawai M, Malone KE, Tang M-TC, Li CI. Height, body mass index (BMI), BMI change, and the risk of estrogen receptor-positive, HER2-positive, and triple-negative breast cancer among women ages 20 to 44 years. Cancer. 2014;120(10):1548–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Yang XR, Chang-Claude J, Goode EL, Couch FJ, Nevanlinna H, Milne RL, et al. Associations of breast cancer risk factors with tumor subtypes: a pooled analysis from the Breast Cancer Association Consortium studies. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2011;103(3):250–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Amadou A, Ferrari P, Muwonge R, Moskal A, Biessy C, Romieu I, Hainaut P. Overweight, obesity and risk of premenopausal breast cancer according to ethnicity: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Obes Rev. 2013;14(8):665–78.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Munsell MF, Sprague BL, Berry DA, Chisholm G, Trentham-Dietz A. Body mass index and breast cancer risk according to postmenopausal estrogen-progestin use and hormone receptor status. Epidemiol Rev. 2014;36(1):114–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Cheraghi Z, Poorolajal J, Hashem T, Esmailnasab N, Doosti IA. Effect of body mass index on breast cancer during premenopausal and postmenopausal periods: a meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2012;7(12):e51446.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Vrieling A, Buck K, Kaaks R, Chang-Claude J. Adult weight gain in relation to breast cancer risk by estrogen and progesterone receptor status: a meta-analysis. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2010;123(3):641–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Estébanez N, Gómez-Acebo I, Palazuelos C, Llorca J, Dierssen-Sotos T. Vitamin D exposure and risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis. Sci Rep. 2018;8(1):9039.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Hatse S, Lambrechts D, Verstuyf A, Smeets A, Brouwers B, Vandorpe T, Brouckaert O, Peuteman G, Laenen A, Verlinden L, Kriebitzsch C. Vitamin D status at breast cancer diagnosis: correlation with tumor characteristics, disease outcome, and genetic determinants of vitamin D insufficiency. Carcinogenesis. 2012;33(7):1319–26.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Park S, Lee DH, Jeon JY, Ryu J, Kim S, Kim JY, et al. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D deficiency and increased risk of breast cancer among Korean women: a case-control study. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2015;152(1):147–54.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. O’Brien KM, Sandler DP, Taylor JA, Weinberg CR. Serum vitamin D and risk of breast cancer within five years. Environ Health Perspect. 2017;125(7):77004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Atoum M, Alzoughool F. Vitamin D and breast cancer: latest evidence and future steps. Breast Cancer. 2017;11:1178223417749816.

    Google Scholar 

  88. Khan SR, Chaker L, Ruiter R, Aerts JG, Hofman A, Dehghan A, Franco OH, Stricker BH, Peeters RP. Thyroid function and cancer risk: the Rotterdam study. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol. 2016;101(12):5030–6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Søgaard M, Farkas DK, Ehrenstein V, Jørgensen JOL, Dekkers OM, Sørensen HT. Hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism and breast cancer risk: a nationwide cohort study. Eur J Endocrinol. 2016;174(4):409–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  90. Weng C-H, Chen Y-H, Lin C-H, Luo X, Lin T-H. Thyroid disorders and breast cancer risk in Asian population: a nationwide population-based case-control study in Taiwan. BMJ Open. 2018;8(3):e020194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  91. Wani B, Aziz SA, Ganaie MA, Mir MH. Metabolic syndrome and breast cancer risk. Indian J Med Paediatr Oncol. 2017;38(4):434–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  92. Tabassum I, Mahmood H, Faheem M. Type 2 diabetes mellitus as a risk factor for female breast cancer in the population of Northern Pakistan. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2016;17(7):3255–8.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Lambertini M, Santoro L, Del Mastro L, Nguyen B, Livraghi L, Ugolini D, Peccatori FA, Azim HA Jr. Reproductive behaviors and risk of developing breast cancer according to tumor subtype: a systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Cancer Treat Rev. 2016;1(49):65–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  94. Reeves GK, Pirie K, Green J, Bull D, Beral V. Reproductive factors and specific histological types of breast cancer: prospective study and meta-analysis. Br J Cancer. 2009;100(3):538–44.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Innes KE, Byers TE. First pregnancy characteristics and subsequent breast cancer risk among young women. Int J Cancer. 2004;112(2):306–11.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Kwan ML, Bernard PS, Kroenke CH, Factor RE, Habel LA, Weltzien EK, Castillo A, Gunderson EP, Maxfield KS, Stijleman IJ, Langholz BM. Breastfeeding, PAM50 tumor subtype, and breast cancer prognosis and survival. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2015;107(7):djv087.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  97. Unar-Munguía M, Torres-Mejía G, Colchero MA, González de Cosío T. Breastfeeding mode and risk of breast cancer: a dose-response meta-analysis. J Hum Lact. 2017;33(2):422–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  98. Nazari SS, Mukherjee P. An overview of mammographic density and its association with breast cancer. Breast Cancer. 2018;25(3):259–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  99. Zhu H, Lei X, Feng J, Wang Y. Oral contraceptive use and risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care. 2012;17(6):402–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  100. Gierisch JM, Coeytaux RR, Urrutia RP, Havrilesky LJ, Moorman PG, Lowery WJ, Dinan M, McBroom AJ, Hasselblad V, Sanders GD, Myers ER. Oral contraceptive use and risk of breast, cervical, colorectal, and endometrial cancers: a systematic review. Cancer Epidemiol Prev Biomarkers. 2013;22(11):1931–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  101. Samson M, Porter N, Orekoya O, Hebert JR, Adams SA, Bennett CL, Steck SE. Progestin and breast cancer risk: a systematic review. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2016 Jan;155(1):3–12.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Hanoch Y, Wallin A. Educating intuition. R. M. Hogarth. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2001. Appl Cogn Psychol. 2003;17(1):122–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  103. Ji L-W, Jing C-X, Zhuang S-L, Pan W-C, Hu X-P. Effect of age at first use of oral contraceptives on breast cancer risk: an updated meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2019;98(36):e15719.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  104. Parkin DM. 10. Cancers attributable to exposure to hormones in the UK in 2010. Br J Cancer. 2011;105(Suppl 2):42–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  105. Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Type and timing of menopausal hormone therapy and breast cancer risk: individual participant meta-analysis of the worldwide epidemiological evidence. Lancet. 2019;394(10204):1159–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  106. Vinogradova Y, Coupland C, Hippisley-Cox J. Use of hormone replacement therapy and risk of breast cancer: nested case-control studies using the QResearch and CPRD databases. BMJ. 2020;371:m3873.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  107. Miller ER, Wilson C, Chapman J, Flight I, Nguyen AM, Fletcher C, Ramsey I. Connecting the dots between breast cancer, obesity and alcohol consumption in middle-aged women: ecological and case control studies. BMC Public Health. 2018;18(1):1–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  108. Vieira R, Tobar JSS, Dardes R, Claudio L, Thuler S. Alcohol consumption as a risk factor for breast cancer development: a case-control study in Brazil. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2018;19(3):703–7.

    Google Scholar 

  109. Brown KF, Rumgay H, Dunlop C, Ryan M, Quartly F, Cox A, Deas A, Elliss-Brookes L, Gavin A, Hounsome L, Huws D. The fraction of cancer attributable to modifiable risk factors in England, Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland, and the United Kingdom in 2015. Br J Cancer. 2018;118(8):1130–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  110. Bagnardi V, Rota M, Botteri E, Tramacere I, Islami F, Fedirko V, Scotti L, Jenab M, Turati F, Pasquali E, Pelucchi C. Alcohol consumption and site-specific cancer risk: a comprehensive dose–response meta-analysis. Br J Cancer. 2015;112(3):580–93.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Choi Y-J, Myung S-K, Lee J-H. Light alcohol drinking and risk of cancer: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. Cancer Res Treat. 2018;50(2):474–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  112. Jayasekara H, MacInnis RJ, Room R, English DR. Long-term alcohol consumption and breast, upper aero-digestive tract and colorectal cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Alcohol Alcohol. 2016;51(3):315–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  113. Rinaldi S, Peeters PH, Bezemer ID, Dossus L, Biessy C, Sacerdote C, Berrino F, Panico S, Palli D, Tumino R, Khaw KT. Relationship of alcohol intake and sex steroid concentrations in blood in pre-and post-menopausal women: the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Cancer Causes Control. 2006;17(8):1033–43.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Fan S, Meng Q, Gao B, Grossman J, Yadegari M, Goldberg ID, Rosen EM. Alcohol stimulates estrogen receptor signaling in human breast cancer cell lines. Cancer Res. 2000;60(20):5635–9.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Singletary KW, Frey RS, Yan W. Effect of ethanol on proliferation and estrogen receptor-alpha expression in human breast cancer cells. Cancer Lett. 2001;165(2):131–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Tao MH, Marian C, Shields PG, Nie J, McCann SE, Millen A, Ambrosone C, Hutson A, Edge SB, Krishnan SS, Xie B. Alcohol consumption in relation to aberrant DNA methylation in breast tumors. Alcohol. 2011;45(7):689–99.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Liu Y, Nguyen N, Colditz GA. Links between alcohol consumption and breast cancer: a look at the evidence. Womens Health (Lond Engl). 2015;11(1):65–77.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Ward RJ, Colivicchi MA, Allen R, Schol F, Lallemand F, De Witte P, Ballini C, Corte LD, Dexter D. Neuro-inflammation induced in the hippocampus of ‘binge drinking’rats may be mediated by elevated extracellular glutamate content. J Neurochem. 2009;111(5):1119–28.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Lindtner C, Scherer T, Zielinski E, Filatova N, Fasshauer M, Tonks NK, Puchowicz M, Buettner C. Binge drinking induces whole-body insulin resistance by impairing hypothalamic insulin action. Sci Transl Med. 2013;5(170):170ra14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  120. Boggs DA, Palmer JR, Stampfer MJ, Spiegelman D, Adams-Campbell LL, Rosenberg L. Tea and coffee intake in relation to risk of breast cancer in the Black Women’s Health Study. Cancer Causes Control. 2010;21(11):1941–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  121. Gierach GL, Freedman ND, Andaya A, Hollenbeck AR, Park Y, Schatzkin A, Brinton LA. Coffee intake and breast cancer risk in the nih-aarp diet and health study cohort. Int J Cancer. 2012;131(2):452–60.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Oh J-K, Sandin S, Ström P, Löf M, Adami H-O, Weiderpass E. Prospective study of breast cancer in relation to coffee, tea and caffeine in Sweden. Int J Cancer. 2015;137(8):1979–89.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Nehlig A, Reix N, Arbogast P, Mathelin C. Coffee consumption and breast cancer risk: a narrative review in the general population and in different subtypes of breast cancer. Eur J Nutr. 2021;60(3):1197–235.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  124. Aune D, Chan DS, Greenwood DC, Vieira AR, Rosenblatt DN, Vieira R, Norat T. Dietary fiber and breast cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Ann Oncol. 2012;23(6):1394–402.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Aune D, Chan DS, Vieira AR, Rosenblatt DA, Vieira R, Greenwood DC, Norat T. Fruits, vegetables and breast cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2012;134(2):479–93.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Taylor EF, Burley VJ, Greenwood DC, Cade JE. Meat consumption and risk of breast cancer in the UK Women’s Cohort Study. Br J Cancer. 2007;96(7):1139–46.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Jordan I, Hebestreit A, Swai B, Krawinkel MB. Dietary patterns and breast cancer risk among women in northern Tanzania: a case-control study. Eur J Nutr. 2013;52(3):905–15.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Sieri S, Krogh V, Ferrari P, Berrino F, Pala V, Thiébaut AC, Tjønneland A, Olsen A, Overvad K, Jakobsen MU, Clavel-Chapelon F. Dietary fat and breast cancer risk in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;88(5):1304–12.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Peterson LL, Ligibel JA. Physical activity and breast cancer: an opportunity to improve outcomes. Curr Oncol Rep. 2018;20(7):50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  130. Friedenreich CM, Neilson HK, Lynch BM. State of the epidemiological evidence on physical activity and cancer prevention. Eur J Cancer. 2010;46(14):2593–604.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  131. Wu Y, Zhang D, Kang S. Physical activity and risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2013;137(3):869–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  132. Moore SC, Lee IM, Weiderpass E, Campbell PT, Sampson JN, Kitahara CM, Keadle SK, Arem H, De Gonzalez AB, Hartge P, Adami HO. Association of leisure-time physical activity with risk of 26 types of cancer in 1.44 million adults. JAMA Intern Med. 2016;176(6):816–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  133. McTiernan A, Kooperberg C, White E, Wilcox S, Coates R, Adams-Campbell LL, Woods N, Ockene J. Recreational physical activity and the risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women: the Women’s Health Initiative Cohort Study. JAMA. 2003;290(10):1331–6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Shi Y, Li T, Wang Y, Zhou L, Qin Q, Yin J, Wei S, Liu L, Nie S. Household physical activity and cancer risk: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Sci Rep. 2015;5(1):1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  135. Bernstein L, Patel AV, Ursin G, Sullivan-Halley J, Press MF, Deapen D, Berlin JA, Daling JR, McDonald JA, Norman SA, Malone KE. Lifetime recreational exercise activity and breast cancer risk among black women and white women. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2005;97(22):1671–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  136. Loprinzi PD, Cardinal BJ, Winters-Stone K, Smit E, Loprinzi CL. Physical activity and the risk of breast cancer recurrence: a literature review. Oncol Nurs Forum. 2012;39(3):269–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  137. Zhong S, Jiang T, Ma T, Zhang X, Tang J, Chen W, Lv M, Zhao J. Association between physical activity and mortality in breast cancer: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. Eur J Epidemiol. 2014;29(6):391–404.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  138. Spei M-E, Samoli E, Bravi F, La Vecchia C, Bamia C, Benetou V. Physical activity in breast cancer survivors: a systematic review and meta-analysis on overall and breast cancer survival. Breast. 2019;44:144–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  139. Gaudet MM, Gapstur SM, Sun J, Diver WR, Hannan LM, Thun MJ. Active smoking and breast cancer risk: original cohort data and meta-analysis. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2013;105(8):515–25.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Gaudet MM, Carter BD, Brinton LA, Falk RT, Gram IT, Luo J, Milne RL, Nyante SJ, Weiderpass E, Beane Freeman LE, Sandler DP. Pooled analysis of active cigarette smoking and invasive breast cancer risk in 14 cohort studies. Int J Epidemiol. 2017;46(3):881–93.

    Google Scholar 

  141. Macacu A, Autier P, Boniol M, Boyle P. Active and passive smoking and risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2015;154(2):213–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  142. Kispert S, McHowat J. Recent insights into cigarette smoking as a lifestyle risk factor for breast cancer. Breast Cancer. 2017;9:127–32.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Luo J, Horn K, Ockene JK, Simon MS, Stefanick ML, Tong E, Margolis KL. Interaction between smoking and obesity and the risk of developing breast cancer among postmenopausal women: the Women's Health Initiative Observational Study. Am J Epidemiol. 2011;174(8):919–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  144. Kabat GC, Kim M, Phipps AI, Li CI, Messina CR, Wactawski-Wende J, Kuller L, Simon MS, Yasmeen S, Wassertheil-Smoller S, Rohan TE. Smoking and alcohol consumption in relation to risk of triple-negative breast cancer in a cohort of postmenopausal women. Cancer Causes Control. 2011;22(5):775–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  145. Kawai M, Malone KE, Tang M-TC, Li CI. Active smoking and the risk of estrogen receptor-positive and triple-negative breast cancer among women ages 20 to 44 years. Cancer. 2014;120(7):1026–34.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Luo J, Margolis KL, Wactawski-Wende J, Horn K, Messina C, Stefanick ML, Tindle HA, Tong E, Rohan TE. Association of active and passive smoking with risk of breast cancer among postmenopausal women: a prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2011;342:d1016.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  147. Xue F, Willett WC, Rosner BA, Hankinson SE, Michels KB. Cigarette smoking and the incidence of breast cancer. Arch Intern Med. 2011;171(2):125–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  148. Bosco JLF, Palmer JR, Boggs DA, Hatch EE, Rosenberg L. Regular aspirin use and breast cancer risk in US Black women. Cancer Causes Control. 2011;22(11):1553–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  149. Brasky TM, Bonner MR, Moysich KB, Ambrosone CB, Nie J, Tao MH, Edge SB, Kallakury BV, Marian C, Goerlitz DS, Trevisan M. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and breast cancer risk: differences by molecular subtype. Cancer Causes Control. 2011;22(7):965–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  150. Cui Y, Deming-Halverson SL, Shrubsole MJ, Beeghly-Fadiel A, Cai H, Fair AM, Shu XO, Zheng W. Use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and reduced breast cancer risk among overweight women. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2014;146(2):439–46.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Clarke CA, Canchola AJ, Moy LM, Neuhausen SL, Chung NT, Lacey JV, Bernstein L. Regular and low-dose aspirin, other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications and prospective risk of HER2-defined breast cancer: the California Teachers Study. Breast Cancer Res. 2017;19(1):1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  152. McNeil JJ, Gibbs P, Orchard SG, Lockery JE, Bernstein WB, Cao Y, Ford L, Haydon A, Kirpach B, Macrae F, McLean C. Effect of aspirin on cancer incidence and mortality in older adults. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2021;113(3):258–65.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Chen WY, Winer EP, Barry WT, Partridge AH, Carey LA, Carvan M, Matyka C, Visvanathan K, Symington B, Holmes MD. ABC trial (A011502): Randomized phase III double blinded placebo controlled trial of aspirin as adjuvant therapy for breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2018;36(15):TPS597.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  154. Palmer JR, Wise LA, Hatch EE, Troisi R, Titus-Ernstoff L, Strohsnitter W, Kaufman R, Herbst AL, Noller KL, Hyer M, Hoover RN. Prenatal diethylstilbestrol exposure and risk of breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Prev Biomarkers. 2006;15(8):1509–14.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Hoover RN, Hyer M, Pfeiffer RM, Adam E, Bond B, Cheville AL, Colton T, Hartge P, Hatch EE, Herbst AL, Karlan BY. Adverse health outcomes in women exposed in utero to diethylstilbestrol. N Engl J Med. 2011;365(14):1304–14.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Han H, Guo W, Shi W, Yu Y, Zhang Y, Ye X, He J. Hypertension and breast cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci Rep. 2017;7(1):1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  157. Palme M, Simeonova E. Does women’s education affect breast cancer risk and survival? Evidence from a population based social experiment in education. J Health Econ. 2015;42:115–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  158. Coughlin SS. Social determinants of breast cancer risk, stage, and survival. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2019;177(3):537–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  159. Akinyemiju TF, Pisu M, Waterbor JW, Altekruse SF. Socioeconomic status and incidence of breast cancer by hormone receptor subtype. Springerplus. 2015;4:508.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  160. Orsini M, Trétarre B, Daurès J-P, Bessaoud F. Individual socioeconomic status and breast cancer diagnostic stages: a French case-control study. Eur J Public Health. 2016;26(3):445–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  161. Lundqvist A, Andersson E, Ahlberg I, Nilbert M, Gerdtham U. Socioeconomic inequalities in breast cancer incidence and mortality in Europe—a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Public Health. 2016;26(5):804–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  162. Shariff-Marco S, Yang J, John EM, Sangaramoorthy M, Hertz A, Koo J, Nelson DO, Schupp CW, Shema SJ, Cockburn M, Satariano WA. Impact of neighborhood and individual socioeconomic status on survival after breast cancer varies by race/ethnicity: the Neighborhood and Breast Cancer Study. Cancer Epidemiol Prev Biomarkers. 2014;23(5):793–811.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  163. Hastert TA, Beresford SAA, Sheppard L, White E. Disparities in cancer incidence and mortality by area-level socioeconomic status: a multilevel analysis. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2015;69(2):168–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  164. Booth CM, Li G, Zhang-Salomons J, Mackillop WJ. The impact of socioeconomic status on stage of cancer at diagnosis and survival: a population-based study in Ontario, Canada. Cancer. 2010;116(17):4160–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  165. Quaglia A, Lillini R, Mamo C, Ivaldi E, Vercelli M. Socio-economic inequalities: a review of methodological issues and the relationships with cancer survival. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 2013;85(3):266–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  166. Singer S, Bartels M, Briest S, Einenkel J, Niederwieser D, Papsdorf K, Stolzenburg JU, Künstler S, Taubenheim S, Krauß O. Socio-economic disparities in long-term cancer survival—10 year follow-up with individual patient data. Support Care Cancer. 2017;25(5):1391–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  167. O’Malley CD, Le GM, Glaser SL, Shema SJ, West DW. Socioeconomic status and breast carcinoma survival in four racial/ethnic groups: a population-based study. Cancer. 2003;97(5):1303–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  168. Rutherford MJ, Hinchliffe SR, Abel GA, Lyratzopoulos G, Lambert PC, Greenberg DC. How much of the deprivation gap in cancer survival can be explained by variation in stage at diagnosis: an example from breast cancer in the East of England. Int J Cancer. 2013;133(9):2192–200.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Berglund A, Lambe M, Lüchtenborg M, Linklater K, Peake MD, Holmberg L, Møller H. Social differences in lung cancer management and survival in South East England: a cohort study. BMJ Open. 2012;2(3):e001048.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  170. Cordina-Duverger E, Menegaux F, Popa A, Rabstein S, Harth V, Pesch B, Brüning T, Fritschi L, Glass DC, Heyworth JS, Erren TC. Night shift work and breast cancer: a pooled analysis of population-based case–control studies with complete work history. Eur J Epidemiol. 2018;33(4):369–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  171. Stevens RG, Davis S. The melatonin hypothesis: electric power and breast cancer. Environ Health Perspect. 1996;104(Suppl 1):135–40.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. Megdal SP, Kroenke CH, Laden F, Pukkala E, Schernhammer ES. Night work and breast cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Cancer. 2005;41(13):2023–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  173. Benabu J-C, Stoll F, Gonzalez M, Mathelin C. Night work, shift work: breast cancer risk factor? Gynecol Obstet Fertil. 2015;43(12):791–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  174. Lu C, Sun H, Huang J, Yin S, Hou W, Zhang J, Wang Y, Xu Y, Xu H. Long-term sleep duration as a risk factor for breast cancer: evidence from a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Biomed Res Int. 2017;2017:4845059.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  175. Xiao Q, Signorello LB, Brinton LA, Cohen SS, Blot WJ, Matthews CE. Sleep duration and breast cancer risk among black and white women. Sleep Med. 2016;20:25–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  176. Chiu H-Y, Huang C-J, Fan Y-C, Tsai P-S. Insomnia but not hypnotics use associates with the risk of breast cancer: a population-based matched cohort study. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2018;27(10):1250–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  177. Soucise A, Vaughn C, Thompson CL, Millen AE, Freudenheim JL, Wactawski-Wende J, Phipps AI, Hale L, Qi L, Ochs-Balcom HM. Sleep quality, duration, and breast cancer aggressiveness. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2017;164(1):169–78.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. Vogtmann E, Levitan EB, Hale L, Shikany JM, Shah NA, Endeshaw Y, Lewis CE, Manson JE, Chlebowski RT. Association between sleep and breast cancer incidence among postmenopausal women in the Women’s Health Initiative. Sleep. 2013;36(10):1437–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  179. John EM, Phipps AI, Knight JA, Milne RL, Dite GS, Hopper JL, Andrulis IL, Southey M, Giles GG, West DW, Whittemore AS. Medical radiation exposure and breast cancer risk: findings from the Breast Cancer Family Registry. Int J Cancer. 2007;121(2):386–94.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. Swerdlow AJ, Barber JA, Hudson GV, Cunningham D, Gupta RK, Hancock BW, Horwich A, Lister TA, Linch DC. Risk of second malignancy after Hodgkin’s disease in a collaborative British cohort: the relation to age at treatment. J Clin Oncol. 2000;18(3):498.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  181. Kenney LB, Yasui Y, Inskip PD, Hammond S, Neglia JP, Mertens AC, Meadows AT, Friedman D, Robison LL, Diller L. Breast cancer after childhood cancer: a report from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study. Ann Intern Med. 2004;141(8):590–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  182. Taylor AJ, Winter DL, Stiller CA, Murphy M, Hawkins MM. Risk of breast cancer in female survivors of childhood Hodgkin’s disease in Britain: a population-based study. Int J Cancer. 2007;120(2):384–91.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  183. De Bruin ML, Sparidans J, van’t Veer MB, Noordijk EM, Louwman MW, Zijlstra JM, van den Berg H, Russell NS, Broeks A, Baaijens MH, Aleman BM. Breast cancer risk in female survivors of Hodgkin’s lymphoma: lower risk after smaller radiation volumes. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27(26):4239–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  184. O’Brien MM, Donaldson SS, Balise RR, Whittemore AS, Link MP. Second malignant neoplasms in survivors of pediatric Hodgkin’s lymphoma treated with low-dose radiation and chemotherapy. J Clin Oncol. 2010;28(7):1232–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  185. Green DM, Hyland A, Barcos MP, Reynolds JA, Lee RJ, Hall BC, Zevon MA. Second malignant neoplasms after treatment for Hodgkin’s disease in childhood or adolescence. J Clin Oncol. 2000;18(7):1492–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  186. Mauch PM, Kalish LA, Marcus KC, Coleman CN, Shulman LN, Krill E, Come S, Silver B, Canellos GP, Tarbell NJ. Second malignancies after treatment for laparotomy staged IA-IIIB Hodgkin’s disease: long-term analysis of risk factors and outcome. Blood. 1996;87(9):3625–32.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  187. Bhatia S, Robison LL, Oberlin O, Greenberg M, Bunin G, Fossati-Bellani F, Meadows AT. Breast cancer and other second neoplasms after childhood Hodgkin’s disease. N Engl J Med. 1996;334(12):745–51.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Roychoudhuri R, Evans H, Robinson D, Møller H. Radiation-induced malignancies following radiotherapy for breast cancer. Br J Cancer. 2004;91(5):868–72.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  189. Early Breast Cancer Trialists’ Collaborative Group. Effects of radiotherapy and of differences in the extent of surgery for early breast cancer on local recurrence and 15-year survival: an overview of the randomised trials. Lancet. 2005;366(9503):2087–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  190. Curtis RE, Freedman DM, Ron E, Ries LAG, Hacker DG, Edwards BK, Tucker MA, Fraumeni JF Jr. New malignancies among cancer survivors: SEER Cancer Registries, 1973-2000. Bethesda: National Cancer Institute (NCI); 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  191. Berrington de Gonzalez A, Curtis RE, Gilbert E, Berg CD, Smith SA, Stovall M, Ron E. Second solid cancers after radiotherapy for breast cancer in SEER cancer registries. Br J Cancer. 2010;102(1):220–6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  192. Gao X, Fisher SG, Emami B. Risk of second primary cancer in the contralateral breast in women treated for early-stage breast cancer: a population-based study. Int J Radiat Oncol. 2003;56(4):1038–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  193. Burt LM, Ying J, Poppe MM, Suneja G, Gaffney DK. Risk of secondary malignancies after radiation therapy for breast cancer: comprehensive results. Breast. 2017;35:122–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  194. Berrington de González A, Darby S. Risk of cancer from diagnostic X-rays: estimates for the UK and 14 other countries. Lancet. 2004;363(9406):345–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  195. Hendrick RE. Radiation doses and risks in breast screening. J Breast Imaging. 2020;2(3):188–200.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  196. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Familial breast cancer: classification, care and managing breast cancer and related risks in people with a family history of breast cancer. NICE guideline [CG164]. 2019. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg164/resources/2019-exceptional-surveillance-of-familial-breast-cancer-classification-care-and-managing-breast-cancer-and-related-risks-in-people-with-a-family-history-of-breast-cancer-nice-guideline-cg164-pdf-9029474482885. Accessed 15 Jan 2021.

  197. Bjerkaas E, Parajuli R, Engeland A, Maskarinec G, Weiderpass E, Gram IT. Social inequalities and smoking-associated breast cancer—results from a prospective cohort study. Prev Med (Baltim). 2015;73:125–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  198. Gram IT, Park SY, Kolonel LN, Maskarinec G, Wilkens LR, Henderson BE, Le Marchand L. Smoking and risk of breast cancer in a racially/ethnically diverse population of mainly women who do not drink alcohol: the MEC study. Am J Epidemiol. 2015;182(11):917–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  199. Li B, Wang L, Lu MS, Mo XF, Lin FY, Ho SC, Zhang CX. Passive smoking and breast cancer risk among non-smoking women: a case-control study in China. PLoS One. 2015;10(4):e0125894.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  200. Strumylaite L, Kregzdyte R, Poskiene L, Bogusevicius A, Pranys D, Norkute R. Association between lifetime exposure to passive smoking and risk of breast cancer subtypes defined by hormone receptor status among non-smoking Caucasian women. PLoS One. 2017;12(2):e0171198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  201. Wan MLY, Co VA, El-Nezami H. Endocrine disrupting chemicals and breast cancer: a systematic review of epidemiological studies. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2021;1–27.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. New Alderley House, Macclesfield District General Hospital, Macclesfield, Cheshire, UK

    Lisa Hackney

Authors
  1. Lisa Hackney
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lisa Hackney .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. School of Health and Society University of Salford, Manchester, UK

    Claire Mercer

  2. University of Salford, Manchester, UK

    Peter Hogg

  3. The Countess of Chester Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Chester, UK

    Judith Kelly

Appendix

Appendix

Test your learning and check your understanding of this book’s contents: use the “Springer Nature Flashcards” app to access questions using https://sn.pub/dcAnWL.

To use the app, please follow the instructions in Chap. 1.

Flashcard code: 48341-69945-ABCB1-2A8C7-CE9D2.

Short URL: https://sn.pub/dcAnWL.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Hackney, L. (2022). Aetiology and Epidemiology of Breast Cancer. In: Mercer, C., Hogg, P., Kelly, J. (eds) Digital Mammography. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10898-3_6

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10898-3_6

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-031-10897-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-031-10898-3

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation