Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Opioid Crises

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Opioids

  • 1125 Accesses

Abstract

In the first two decades of the twenty-first century, over-prescription of opioid analgesics, diversion of opioid medications, opioid use disorders, and overdose deaths increased to unprecedented levels in the United States, causing a devastating crisis. Canada suffered a similar problem but to a lesser extent. These crises were triggered by aggressive marketing strategies promoting prescription opioids to treat chronic non-cancer pain and using pharmaceutical presentations without deterrents, easy to crush and misuse. Such practices ultimately favored an increase in heroin use. More recently, fentanyl and other synthetic opioids have become prevalent in North America, the European Union, and the United Kingdom and are sold through the dark web. In Africa and Asia, the high-risk use of tramadol currently affects several populations. This chapter gives an overview of opioid misuse in several countries and summarizes some evidence-based interventions and public health responses to the opioid crises.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Kunnumpurath S, Julien N, Kodumudi G, Kunnumpurath A, Kodumudi V, Vadivelu N. Global supply and demand of opioids for pain management. Curr Pain Headache Rep. 2018;22:34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11916-018-0689-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. UNODC. World drug report, United Nations publication, 2022. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/world-drug-report-2022.html

  3. Mark TL, Parish W. Opioid medication discontinuation and risk of adverse opioid-related health care events. J Subst Abus Treat. 2019;103:58–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2019.05.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Patrick SW, Schumacher RE, Benneyworth BD, Krans EE, McAllister JM, Davis MM. Neonatal abstinence syndrome and associated health care expenditures: United States, 2000–2009. JAMA. 2012;307:1934–40. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2012.3951.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Kidd K, Weinberg T, Caboral-Stevens M. The 21st century opioid addiction: a concept analysis and implications for nursing. J Addict Nurs. 31:17–22. https://doi.org/10.1097/JAN.0000000000000321.

  6. Kiang MV, Humphreys K, Cullen MR, Basu S. Opioid prescribing patterns among medical providers in the United States, 2003–17: retrospective, observational study. BMJ. 2020;368:l6968. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l6968.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. SAMSHA. Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: results from the 2019 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. HHS Publ No PEP19-5068, NSDUH Ser H-54. 2019;170:51–8.

    Google Scholar 

  8. NIDA. Opioid overdose crisis [Internet]. Natl Inst Drug Abus. 2021.

    Google Scholar 

  9. CDC. Understanding the epidemic [Internet]. Centers Dis Control Prev Natl Cent Inj Prev Control. 2022.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Volkow ND. Making addiction treatment more realistic and pragmatic: the perfect should not be the enemy of the good. Heal Aff Forefr. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1377/forefront.20211221.691862.

  11. El-Bassel N, Shoptaw S, Goodman-Meza D, Ono H. Addressing long overdue social and structural determinants of the opioid epidemic. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2021;222:108679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108679.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Porter J, Jick H. Addiction rare in patients treated with narcotics. N Engl J Med. 1980;302:123. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejm198001103020221.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Leung PTM, Macdonald EM, Stanbrook MB, Dhalla IA, Juurlink DN. A 1980 letter on the risk of opioid addiction. N Engl J Med. 2017;376:2194–5. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc1700150.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Baker DW. History of the Joint Commission’s pain standards: lessons for today’s prescription opioid epidemic. JAMA. 2017;317:1117–8. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.0935.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Jones CM. Heroin use and heroin use risk behaviors among nonmedical users of prescription opioid pain relievers – United States, 2002–2004 and 2008–2010. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013;132:95–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.01.007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Quinones S. Dreamland: the true tale of America’s opiate epidemic. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Stoicea N, Costa A, Periel L, Uribe A, Weaver T, Bergese SD. Current perspectives on the opioid crisis in the US healthcare system: a comprehensive literature review. Medicine (Baltimore). 2019;98:e15425. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000015425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Dowell D, Haegerich TM, Chou R. CDC guideline for prescribing opioids for chronic pain – United States, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2016;65:1–49. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr6501e1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Ciccarone D. The triple wave epidemic: supply and demand drivers of the US opioid overdose crisis. Int J Drug Policy. 2019;71:183–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.01.010.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Jones W, Kaoser R, Fischer B. Patterns, trends and determinants of medical opioid utilization in Canada 2005–2020: characterizing an era of intensive rise and fall. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy. 2021;16:65. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13011-021-00396-5.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. CCSA. Prescription opioids. Encycl Personal Individ Differ. 2020:4015.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Usman MA. Opioid crisis: the African perspective. Disaster Med Public Health Prep. 2020:1–2. https://doi.org/10.1017/dmp.2020.259.

  23. Belzak L, Halverson J. The opioid crisis in Canada: a national perspective. Health Promot Chronic Dis Prev Can. 2018;38:224–33. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.38.6.02.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Special Advisory Committee on the Epidemic of Opioid Overdoses. Opioid- and Stimulant-related Harms in Canada. Ottawa: Public Health Agency of Canada; June 2022. https://health-infobase.canada.ca/substance-related-harms/opioids-stimulants/.

  25. Kurth AE, Cherutich P, Conover R, Chhun N, Bruce RD, Lambdin BH. The opioid epidemic in Africa and its impact. Curr Addict Rep. 2018;5:428–53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-018-0232-9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Klein A, Patwardhan S, Loglo MGA. Divergences and commonalities between the US opioid crisis and prescription medicine mis/use in West Africa. Int J Drug Policy. 2020;76:102640. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.102640.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. International Narcotics Control Board. Report 2017 Press material. United Nations Inf Serv. 2018;1100.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Dean L, Kane M. Tramadol therapy and CYP2D6 genotype [Internet]. Med Genet Summ. 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  29. UNODC. 2020 global synthetic drugs assessment, regional overview Africa [Internet]. 2020.

    Google Scholar 

  30. UNODC. World drug report 2019 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.19.XI.8). [Internet]. 2019.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Harker N, Lucas WC, Laubscher R, Dada S, Myers B, Parry CD. Is South Africa being spared the global opioid crisis? A review of trends in drug treatment demand for heroin, nyaope and codeine-related medicines in South Africa (2012–2017). Int J Drug Policy. 2020;83:102839. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.102839.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Salm-Reifferscheidt L. Tramadol: Africa’s opioid crisis. Lancet (London, England). 2018;391:1982–3. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31073-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Peprah P, Agyemang-Duah W, Appiah-Brempong E, Akwasi AG, Morgan AK. “With tramadol, I ride like a Jaguar”: a qualitative study of motivations for non-medical purpose tramadol use among commercial vehicle operators in Kumasi, Ghana. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy. 2020;15:49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13011-020-00292-4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Ambekar A, Agrawal A, Rao R, Mishra AK, Khandelwal SK, Chadda RK. Magnitude of substance use in India. New Delhi Minist Soc Justice Empower Gov India; 2019.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Schmall E, Galofaro C. How tramadol, touted as safer opioid, became 3rd world peril [Internet]. AP News. 2019.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Singh B, Rao R. Perspectives-is there an opioid epidemic in India? J Public Health (Oxf). 2021;43:ii43–50. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdab322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Rostam-Abadi Y, Gholami J, Amin-Esmaeili M, Safarcherati A, Mojtabai R, Ghadirzadeh MR, et al. Tramadol use and public health consequences in Iran: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Addiction. 2020;115:2213–42. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.15059.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Nasiri N, Abedi L, Hajebi A, Noroozi A, Khalili M, Chegeni M, et al. Population size estimation of tramadol misusers in urban population in Iran: synthesis of methods and results. Addict Health. 2019;11:173–82. https://doi.org/10.22122/ahj.v11i3.240.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Alblooshi H, Hulse GK, El Kashef A, Al Hashmi H, Shawky M, Al Ghaferi H, et al. The pattern of substance use disorder in the United Arab Emirates in 2015: results of a National Rehabilitation Centre cohort study. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy. 2016;11:19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13011-016-0062-5.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Chen T-C, Chen L-C, Knaggs RD. A 15-year overview of increasing tramadol utilisation and associated mortality and the impact of tramadol classification in the United Kingdom. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2018;27:487–94. https://doi.org/10.1002/pds.4320.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Sørensen AMS, Rasmussen L, Ernst MT, Mogensen SH, Laursen MV, Jimenez-Solem E, et al. Use of tramadol and other analgesics following media attention and risk minimization actions from regulators: a Danish nationwide drug utilization study. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2021;77:617–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00228-020-03016-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. World Health Organization. Critical review report: tramadol. Crit Rev Rep Tramadol. 2018:19–22.

    Google Scholar 

  43. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. European drug report 2020: trends and developments. EMCDDA. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union; 2020.

    Google Scholar 

  44. UNODC. Monitoreo de Plantíos de Amapola 2018–2019 (MEXK54, 2021) [Internet]. United Nations; 2021. https://doi.org/10.18356/9789214030508.

  45. Fleiz C, Arredondo J, Chavez A, Pacheco L, Segovia LA, Villatoro JA, et al. Fentanyl is used in Mexico’s northern border: current challenges for drug health policies. Addiction. 2020;115:778–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14934.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Cruz SL, Carranza-Aguilar CJ, Pérez-García IP. Sodium chloride injection to treat opioid overdose; Does it work? A preclinical study. Neurotoxicology. 2021;87:24–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2021.08.012.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. UNODC. Understanding the global opioid crisis. Glob SMART Updat. 2019;21:12.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Blanco C, Wiley TRA, Lloyd JJ, Lopez MF, Volkow ND. America’s opioid crisis: the need for an integrated public health approach. Transl Psychiatry. 2020;10:167. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-020-0847-1.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. World Health Organization. (2014). Community management of opioid overdose. World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/137462

  50. Dugosh K, Abraham A, Seymour B, McLoyd K, Chalk M, Festinger D. A systematic review on the use of psychosocial interventions in conjunction with medications for the treatment of opioid addiction. J Addict Med. 2016;10:93–103. https://doi.org/10.1097/ADM.0000000000000193.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Furlan AD, Harvey AM, Chadha R. Warning from Canada: Latin America, South Africa and India may face an opioid epidemic in the coming years. J Glob Health. 2020;10:010324. https://doi.org/10.7189/jogh.10.010324.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  52. Davis C, Sargent W, Vick J, Kuoh H, Cote P-O, editors. Leveraging Prescription Drug Monitoring Program (PDMP) data in overdose prevention and response. 2021.

    Google Scholar 

  53. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Opioids: health and social responses. 2021:1–11. https://doi.org/10.2810/273937.

  54. CDC. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for Health Statistics, Drug overdose data [Internet]. 2020.

    Google Scholar 

  55. The Lancet. A time of crisis for the opioid epidemic in the USA. Lancet. Elsevier Ltd. 2021;398:277. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01653-6

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pharmacobiology, Center for Research and Advanced Studies (Cinvestav), Mexico City, Mexico

    Silvia L. Cruz

  2. Opioids Working Group, Global Studies Seminar, Faculty of Medicine, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico

    Silvia L. Cruz & Raúl Martín-del-Campo

  3. National Institute of Psychiatry Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz (INPRFM), Mexico City, Mexico

    Raúl Martín-del-Campo

  4. International Narcotics Board Control, United Nations, Vienna, Austria

    Raúl Martín-del-Campo

Authors
  1. Silvia L. Cruz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Raúl Martín-del-Campo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Silvia L. Cruz .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pharmacobiology, Cinvestav, Mexico City, Mexico

    Silvia L. Cruz

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Cruz, S.L., Martín-del-Campo, R. (2022). The Opioid Crises. In: Cruz, S.L. (eds) Opioids. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09936-6_5

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation