Mineral Extractive Industries in the Context of European World Heritage Cultural Landscape Conservation and Management: The Case Study of the Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří Mining Region

Abstract

Current prospection activities lead not only to the opening of new mines but also to a revival of activity in historic mining areas that are partly in or close to protected areas. Consequently, the issue of mining and its potential negative impact on protected areas, including natural World Heritage sites in particular, has increased over the past two decades. Considering that attributes and values assigned to natural World Heritage sites differ from those assigned to cultural World Heritage sites, the paper focuses on the evaluation of the potential impact of mining activities on cultural World Heritage sites and outlines management and conservation strategies as well as recommendations for the assessment of potential negative and positive impacts of mining activities on the OUV.

1 Introduction

Mineral extraction plays a crucial role in the global economy. Current prospection activities lead not only to the opening of new mines but also to a revival of activity in historic mining areas that are partly in or close to protected areas. Consequently, the issue of mining and its potential negative impact on World Heritage sites has increased over the past two decades. The most severe impacts were primarily concerned with natural World Heritage sites, and the development of guidelines and principles were guided by experiences derived from such sites. Considering that attributes and values assigned to natural World Heritage sites differ from those assigned to cultural World Heritage sites, and, accordingly, the experiences are not commonly transferrable to cultural sites, the paper focuses on the evaluation of the potential impact of mining on cultural World Heritage sites. The geo-cultural region considered is Europe due to the relatively high number of mining-related World Heritage sites, similarities in technical heritage and a shared European mining identity. The Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří Mining Region, inscribed in 2019 as a prominent example of a classic European mining landscape, serves as a case study. The paper examines three key aspects for the conservation and management of World Heritage sites in Europe: (1) The role of past and new mining in the statement of Outstanding Universal Value; (2) Conflict-solving and management strategies in place to manage future mining activities; and (3) the potential contribution of the resumption of mining.

2 Mining, and the Resumption of Mining, in Cultural World Heritage Sites: A Controversial Topic?

The significance of mining for the history of humankind has been recognised in recent years, leading to the inscription of a number of mining-related sites on the World Heritage List. To date, of the current 1154 World Heritage sites, 33 mining-related sites are inscribed on the World Heritage List, out of which 19 are located in Europe (UNESCO, 2021a). Eight European mining areas were inscribed under the organically evolved cultural landscape category: Hallstein Dachstein/Salzkammergut Cultural Landscape (1997, (iii) (iv), Austria), Blaenavon Industrial Landscape (2000, (iii) (iv), UK), Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape (2006, (ii), (iii) (iv), UK), Nord-Pas de Calais Mining Basin (2012, (ii) (iv) (vi), France), Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří Mining Region (2019, (ii), (iii), (iv), Germany), Krzemionki Prehistoric Striped Flint Mining Region (2019, (iii) (iv), Poland), Roşia Montană Mining Landscape (2021, (ii), (iii), (iv), Romania) and The Slate Landscape of Northwest Wales (2021, (ii), (iv), UK) (UNESCO, 2021b). In terms of values and attributes, each mining landscape in a World Heritage context has its own specific character. However, most landscapes commonly combine relict and living features. The application of criterion (iii) emphasises the strong relationship of a historic mining region with a cultural tradition or civilization that may have disappeared in historic areas. In more recent mining areas, the landscapes are considered as “continuing”, encompassing intangible values in which mining retains an active social role in contemporary society. The structure and pattern of mining landscapes are characterised by an inseparable connection of mineral extraction and mineral practices to the location of mineral deposits (Tost et al., 2021, 7). This close relationship to potentially viable ore resources in mining-related World Heritage sites makes the resumption of mining likely.

The German-Czech World Heritage Site Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří Mining Region can be considered a prominent example of a classical European mining landscape. The site was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2019, under criteria (ii), (iii) and (iv). Ore mining and its influence on the landscape and the people were at the heart of the prestigious designation. The property itself is a substantially relict mining landscape with a strong mining tradition, albeit no mining activities have taken place since the cessation of the last operational mine in 1990. Located in a world-class polymetallogenic province, the evolutionary process is still in progress. Saxony is a “mining country”, and prospection activities in the Ore Mountains region continue – a fact that was diligently considered during the nomination process and addressed in the conservation and management planning of the site. Referring to Decision 43 COM 8B.26 of the World Heritage inscription in 2019 reveals an apparent contradiction. Based on the recommendation of ICOMOS, the Advisory Body to UNESCO for cultural heritage sites, the World Heritage Committee have recommended the State Parties “to formally committing that no mining activities or processing will be allowed in the future within the boundaries of the component parts of the serial property” (UNESCO, 2019a). The question arises, what is the basis of such a recommendation? Can mining developments be considered under all circumstances to represent a threat to Outstanding Universal Value (OUV)? Or can there be exceptional cases or a suitable protocol whereby mining developments can take place in and/or adjacent to World Heritage sites without the fear of negatively impacting OUV? Affolder (2007, 24), points out that there is “no express prohibition on all mining within World Heritage sites in the text of the Convention nor is it clear that such a sweeping prohibition could be implied from the Convention text”. The Operational Guidelines do not foresee such a formal blanket commitment.

It is undisputed that certain mining activities either in or adjacent to a World Heritage site can threaten its OUV. Being aware of the potential threats caused by mining, in particular to natural World Heritage sites, a number of international meetings have been held on the subject since 1999 (UNESCO, 2021c). In 2003, the members of the International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM) endorsed a “No-go commitment” to “respect legally designated protected areas” and “not explore or mine in World Heritage properties” (ICMM, 2003, 3; Affolder, 2007, 25). An independent study commissioned in 2012 by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in cooperation with the World Heritage Centre and ICMM and Shell sums up the issues, challenges and opportunities related to extraction and natural World Heritage sites (Turner, 2012).

The World Heritage Committee has expressed many times its clear position that mineral, oil and gas exploration or exploitation is incompatible with World Heritage status and that such activities should not be undertaken within World Heritage properties. It is, in any case, essential that the Outstanding Universal Value of a World Heritage property is not impacted. (UNESCO, 2021c)

There is no doubt about the potential negative impacts of mining activities and developments on natural World Heritage sites. However, the values and attributes of natural World Heritage sites that are the subject of protection and management are different from the values and attributes of cultural World Heritage sites. Experiences with natural World Heritage sites, therefore, are not commonly transferrable to cultural sites. In conformity with paragraph 172 of the Operational Guidelines, the statement of OUV determines the assessment of individual development projects (UNESCO, 2019b).

3 What Is the Current Situation in the Context of Cultural World Heritage Sites?

Analysing state of conservation reports reveals the reasons for the position of the World Heritage Committee. From 1984 to 2021, UNESCO reports that pressure from extractive industries is rising, resulting in 530 reports on 87 properties in 52 States Parties concerning extractive practices. 384 reports on 59 properties in 40 State Parties particularly address the issue of mining. 76% of reports concern threats by mining development activities in natural World Heritage sites, 5% in mixed sites and 19% in cultural sites. In recent years, the number of concerns related to cultural heritage sites increased. 42 reports on 11 properties in 9 State Parties concern World Heritage sites inscribed on cultural criteria (UNESCO, 2021d).

A screening of mining sites on the World Heritage List in which mining activity occurs demonstrates that mining does not necessarily have a negative impact on the cultural heritage site. In the case of the World Heritage site “City of Potosi”, Bolivia, certain recent mining activities have a clearly defined negative impact on the cultural heritage. The potential degradation of the historic site by continued and uncontrolled mining operations in Cerro Rico Mountain is one of the threats to OUV that contributes to the property being placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger (UNESCO, 2019c). The collapse of the summit of the Cerro Rico remains a concern and, apart from geotechnical stabilisation, miners working above a certain elevation have now been relocated. In contrast, mining activities also take place in the World Heritage site “Historic Town of Guanajuato and Adjacent Mines”, Mexico. Here a miners’ cooperative established in the 1930s continues to mine silver ore in La Valenciana mine at considerable depth, activities which, coupled with concentrating the ore outside the World Heritage site, do not negatively impact OUV. Moving to Europe, a recent screening showed that, to date, no World Heritage sites are imminently threatened by mineral extraction (Tost et al., 2021, 3). In the case of Hallstatt-Dachstein/Salzkammergut Cultural Landscape, active salt mining is still taking place within the boundaries of the World Heritage cultural landscape. The heritage designation is based on salt mining in the region, and the active salt mines were pre-existing and part of the selection process in 1997 (Tost et al., 2021, 13).

One of three properties in Europe, and the most recent that was raised for examination by the World Heritage Committee, is the case of Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape. Criterion (iii) refers to the transformation of the urban and rural landscapes by copper and tin mining that presents a vivid and legible testimony to the success of Cornish and West Devon industrialised mining (UNESCO, 2021e). The issue of the potential resumption of mining was addressed in the nomination file and the management plan stating that “proposals for the resumption of mining will be supported where they do not adversely affect the Outstanding Universal Value of the Site” (Gamble, 2005, 197&151). ICOMOS (2006, 312), highlighted the following in its evaluation report: “Although the re-opening of mines in the nominated areas could be considered as re-invigorating the cultural landscape, great care would be needed with any such proposals to ensure that the values associated with early steam technologies are not harmed, especially as manifest by engine houses. It is therefore recommended that any such proposals, within the nominated areas, or their setting, are forwarded to the World Heritage Committee for debate and scrutiny.” In 2012, the State Party submitted a state of conservation report notifying the World Heritage Centre about plans to resume mining at South Crofty, located within the World Heritage property, which has been inactive since 1998 (UNESCO, 2012). From 2012 onwards, state of conservation reports dealt with the potential resumption of mining at South Crofty (UNESCO, 2021d). The position was that the resumption of mining was justifiable and is achievable without adverse impact on OUV. Mining has not yet resumed, and no plant has been constructed.

The case of Roşia Montană Mining Landscape in Romania shows that the proposed large-scale open-pit mining would adversely affect its OUV. In fact, it would almost totally obliterate the Roman gold mining heritage for which it was inscribed in 2021. The justification of criterion (iii) is based on “cultural traditions of one of the oldest documented mining communities in Europe, anciently founded by the Romans” and a heritage that provided “an authentic picture of daily life and cultural practice in this ancient frontier mining community” (ICOMOS, 2021, 264). The property has also been inscribed on the List of World Heritage in Danger because of the still pending potential of the resumption of large-scale opencast mining that could lead to significant damage to the cultural heritage. The mining company has not yet received a licence, and the arbitration process is ongoing, yet there still remains a risk of activation of the licence that extends until 2024 under existing Romanian law (ICOMOS, 2021, 269).

4 The Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří Mining Region Case Study

4.1 The World Heritage Site

The Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří Mining is located in a mountainous region that spans the German-Czech border. The landscape has been profoundly and irreversibly shaped by 800 years of almost continuous mining, from the twelfth to the twentieth centuries.

The value of the cultural landscape is based on the interaction between people and their environment and is tangibly manifested by a diverse cultural heritage. Mining activities have always been central to the cultural, social and economic heritage of the community. The Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří Mining Region is anchored as a substantially relict landscape, in which an evolutionary process came to an end at some time in the past, but is also partly relevant as a continuing landscape in that parts of the landscape retain an active social role. The inscription is associated with strong mining traditions based on criterion (iii), that is, justified by the exceptional testimony to technological, scientific, administrative, educational, managerial and social aspects that underpin the intangible dimension of living traditions, ideas and beliefs of the people associated with the Ore Mountains’ culture. Mining in the region is considered a core part of identity, and the World Heritage inscription reflects the strong relationship between people in the region and their tangible and intangible heritage (Fig. 25.1).

Fig. 25.1

Twenty-two component parts reflect the unevenly distributed locations of the most important raw material deposits that dictated land use and are characterised by specific and formative contributions made by the exploitation of different metals at different times. (Note. Source: C. Lehnert, 2020, © IWTG)

4.2 The Potential Resumption of Mining

The Ore Mountains region is considered as a living landscape, in which the new mining activity constitutes a continuation of traditional mining, including its controlled influence on the landscape. Mining continues to play an important role in the life and economy, and the resumption of mining is most likely. On a global scale, most of Saxony’s deposits may be considered rather small to medium-sized, but they can play a new economic role as demand grows and world market prices rise. Tin, zinc, copper and tungsten are of particular interest, as well as fluorspar, barite and other metallic raw materials such as lithium, of which economically viable reserves are available. The handling of raw material reserves is reflected in the raw material strategy of the Free State of Saxony, which integrates the potential into an overall economic concept for a sustainable raw material economy. In the strategy, it is stated that “As a region rich in raw materials, Saxony advocates placing an additional focus on ensuring and developing the local supply of raw materials” (Saxon State Ministry of Economic Affairs, Labour and Transport, 2012, 11). The strategy outlines the guidelines and objectives of Saxon raw material policy and practical tasks for their implementation. The need for a continuous supply of diverse mineral resources leads to continuous prospection activities to safeguard a sufficient level of known mineral resources to meet the needs of future generations. In recent years, a number of exploration licences in the Ore Mountains region were approved. The validity of exploration licences is limited, and the processes of granting are dynamic. As of 2019, 18 licences were assessed in relation to their potential impacts on the property. Only one mining licence needs attention as it is located in and adjacent to the World Heritage site, and possible impacts on the present landscape cannot be precluded. To assess the potential impact of the proposed lithium mining, a preliminary Heritage Impact Assessment was prepared in close cooperation with the mining company, mining authority, monument protection authority and World Heritage management. This was specifically undertaken to inform any final decision and concludes with the position, pending more detailed design, that there could be negligible adverse effects and that the resumption of mining in this protected landscape may be justifiable. The awareness of the concept of a mining landscape as an assemblage of surface and subsurface spatial patterns, landscape features and elements are of particular importance when it comes to heritage impact assessments, evaluating the possible impact of mineral practices in a protected landscape or those from possible mining operations located outside the site (Tost et al., 2021, 8).

4.3 Conservation and Management Strategies

A key to the holistic approach of conservation and management was the early involvement of all concerned stakeholders at all levels and intensive cooperation. The whole cultural landscape is significant and requires clear definition and understanding in order to secure its protection, including mineral resource assessments. The preparation of the World Heritage nomination was designed as a collaborative process of recognising and understanding the OUV of one’s own heritage from a global perspective. Both the technical preparation of the nomination and the drafting of the application document took place within the framework of broad-based consultation. All relevant stakeholders such as municipalities, districts, building and planning authorities, monument owners, property owners, associations and interested citizens as well as external experts were involved. The process allowed for complete transparency.

During the nomination process, potential sources of conflict, including mining activities, were identified and addressed. Conflict-solving strategies were developed as well as measures to integrate the issue of responsible mining in the future management of the site. The World Heritage Centre, IUCN and ICOMOS were informed regarding mining-related activities prior to designation. In addition, a procedure has been developed to identify potential conflicts at an early stage and to jointly find solutions for the development of the region in line with the protection and preservation of the World Heritage site. The statement of the OUV and the definition of the contribution of each component part to the OUV are key to the conservation and future sustainable management of the property. The World Heritage attributes and values were identified as crucial both for the assessment of authenticity and integrity and for the determination of the boundaries of the proposed property, and thus also for the future management, protection and conservation of the World Heritage site. Such clear determination provides a robust basis to assess the impact of mining activities and other developments on the component parts and to mitigate negative impacts on the OUV of the property, its integrity and authenticity. In addition to defining the attributes and values in terms of the rationale for the criteria, the tangible elements that convey the proposed OUV have also been clearly identified and described. This characterisation enables World Heritage values to be defined in more detail and also considers the landscape context that may not be recorded within the existing conservation framework and which should be considered in possible future development projects. Specific actions to ensure the effective management of potential new mining activities included:

• 1. A management system was developed that involves the responsible ministries on the national level and the local management institutions and defines responsibilities to secure a constant flow of information regarding potential new developments in the region (Albrecht et al., 2017, 479ff.) Regular meetings between the institutions secure the flow of information. Moreover, there is continuous monitoring of the component parts that include reporting on the state of conservation as well as on development projects.

• 2. Issues of monument protection, including proposed or acknowledged World Heritage attributes and values, are considered in the approval procedure. A combination of legal mechanisms is in place within the component parts that enable the protection of the World Heritage site and the effective operation of its buffer zone.

• 3. An agreement was made between the Saxon local management institution and the Saxon mining authority stipulating that mining enterprises will be informed about the World Heritage site and its potential of overlapping future mining interests. The agreement allows early consideration of potential impacts as well as facilitating the consultation process with mining enterprises.

• 4. All planned and proposed mining activities are continuously monitored by the managing institution, supported by the technical agency on the State level. The proposed resumption of mining within the World Heritage site and its buffer zone will be informed by a Heritage Impact Assessment that focuses on OUV. Any resumption of mining in or close to the site will be subject to a paragraph 172 notification and respective impact assessments (Fig. 25.2).

Fig. 25.2

The management system includes all relevant stakeholders. Experts on various themes such as monument protection and regional development are involved by working groups. (Note. Source: Albrecht et al. (2017). Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří Mining Region Nomination for Inscription on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Online Source. UNESCO/World Heritage Centre. URL: https://whc.unesco.org/document/166295)

5 World Heritage-Compatible Mining? Recommendations for Assessment in Future

The examples illustrate that there is not a single approach for considering the impact of mining activities on World Heritage sites. Considering that mining-related World Heritage sites are partly bound to still-viable mineral deposits and especially given the recent developments in the demand for lithium to supply the renewable energy battery storage market and the wider demand for metals including tin, tungsten, and copper increasingly used in low-carbon technologies, there can be no intention to completely deny access to mineral resources for the future. In each case, site-specific circumstances, as well as close reference to the justification for inscription, must guide the assessment of potential impacts of mining activities and the resumption of mining. Therefore, of particular importance for the assessment of impacts is a clear determination and understanding of the World Heritage attributes that should be outlined from the outset in the nomination file; a requirement that was taken into account in the revision of the format for the nomination of properties for inscription on the World Heritage List in 2021. It is recommended that the assessment of potential negative and/or positive impacts of mining activities on the OUV should be guided further by three key aspects:

• 1. Relationship to mining traditions: A key aspect for the assessment of mining activities and developments, and their potential impact, is the relationship between mineral resources as an important land use and the justification for World Heritage inscription. In certain cases, e.g. the Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří Mining Region and the Cornwall and Devon Mining Landscape, the resumption of responsible mining can be considered strongly in accordance with the intangible values of the sites that are also inscribed for their mining tradition, with mining still playing an active role in today’s society. Mining continues to be considered as a strong factor for regional identity, and the potential resumption of mining activities exists and is widely supported among the community. Accordingly, the resumption of mining has the potential to support intangible heritage values.

• 2. Technological change in mining: It has to be noted that licence areas do not necessarily imply mining or, if mining does proceed, corresponding potential landscape impact. In cases of the discovery of economic deposits, the underground mining fields are usually much smaller, commonly located beneath historic mines and do not allow any conclusions regarding the location of surface installations. Moreover, today’s underground mining technology coupled with modern high-tech surface facilities mean that extraction can be more efficient and use less space and fewer resources. Methods may involve micro-invasive mining with no surface waste dumps, minimal impact on the landscape through new surface structures, and secondary processing remote from any protected landscapes. These changes in mining technologies have the capacity, at least, for neutral impacts on the values and attributes and the visual integrity of a cultural World Heritage site. The ability to devise a compatible operation is encouraging.

• 3. Contribution of mining to Sustainable Development Goals: As mining-related cultural landscapes may be located in globally significant polymetallogenic provinces, the potential contribution to SDGs should be considered. In 2016, an atlas was initiated and published by the World Economic Forum, the Columbia Centre on Sustainable Investment, the United Nations Development Program and the Sustainable Development Solutions Network. This maps the relationship between mining and the SDGs (World Economic Forum, 2016, 3). The atlas presents a broad overview of opportunities and challenges to demonstrate the actual and potential contributions of the mining sector to the achievement of the SDGs.

6 Conclusion

Concerning the key aspects for the conservation and management of World Heritage sites in Europe that this paper examined, the following conclusions could be drawn:

• 1. The role of past and new mining in the statement of OUV: There is a need to carefully differentiate between types of cultural sites and the potential that mining has to impact upon these sites. In certain cases, mineral exploration and extraction seem to be deemed compatible within the boundaries of World Heritage sites, at least to some degree. This might be applied in particular to evolving, living landscapes for which criterion (iii) was applied and in which mining retains an active role in contemporary society.

• 2. Conflict-solving and management strategies in place to manage future mining activities: Inscription confirms that the statement of OUV is the key to the conservation and future sustainable management of the property, together with a clear definition of the contribution made by each component part. World Heritage attributes and values are implicit in the authenticity and integrity of properties, and for the justification of property boundaries, and thus for the future management, protection and conservation of the World Heritage site. The management plan should carefully consider potential impacts – positive and/or negative – as well as provide strategies for mining activities within and adjacent to the site. Mineral planning policies of the respective country should be outlined, and the authorities concerned involved in management processes.

• 3. Potential contribution of the resumption of mining: The potential of recent or new mining activity being supported in the future management of World Heritage sites was indicated by measures to integrate the issue of responsible mining in property management plans that were submitted along with nomination dossiers prior to inscription. This tells us that recent or new mining activity within cultural World Heritage sites is not necessarily or automatically considered as incompatible. On the contrary, new mining might have the potential to contribute to the values of a specific type of site, in contrast to the common experiences with natural World Heritage sites. Management and conservation strategies should guide the effective management of potential new mining activities within or adjacent to World Heritage sites and must be considered in management planning.

In the framework of the 50th anniversary of the World Heritage Convention, particular attention should be drawn to the potential contribution of mining to Sustainable Development Goals, an opportunity that in the context of mining-related World Heritage sites is not yet sufficiently addressed. Protecting UNESCO World Heritage sites for all people of the world and for future generations requires sustainability in the preservation and use of the sites. Responsible mining at World Heritage sites could serve as an example that demonstrates how a potentially conflicting use could contribute to the wellbeing of local communities – as long as it is well managed and the attributes of OUV are fully protected. A first step was undertaken by the Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape. The newly updated management plan, for the period 2020–2025, comprehensively addresses the issue of mining and the resumption of mining and its importance for sustainable future-orientated development. Climate resilience and biodiversity, renewable energy and carbon-neutral agendas, environment and culture as an enabler of sustainable development and economic prosperity: these are all considered in this forward-looking plan (Cornish Mining World Heritage Site, 2020, 102). This approach could provide a useful case study as a way ahead for dialogue between other mining-related World Heritage sites in Europe and worldwide.