Keywords

11.1 Introduction

One of the main reasons for protecting forests is that they protect us. Forests have many protective functions, from a local to global scale (FAO, 2005). Such purposes have traditionally been divided into two broad categories: direct protection and indirect protection. Direct protection occurs when a forest offers protection from specific risk factors in an area where people live or valuable objects are present (residential areas, buildings, roads, others). This is a conventional classification system, convenient in practice and broadly accepted, which classifies the forest function indirectly, through its value to the safeguarded territory and not by the function itself. Protection forests generally protect against several types of natural hazards (Dorren et al., 2004) but direct protection is local, since it is tied to the stand level (Schönenberger, 2001).

INFC assesses various functions of Italian forests. Chap. 9 provides inventory statistics on the wooded areas in protected areas, at the different levels of protection in line with national laws. This is particularly relevant for the biodiversity conservation, since forests represent the habitat of a considerable part of the flora and fauna (Fuhrer, 2000). Concerning the influence on climate, Chap. 12 shows the contribution of the aboveground woody vegetation to the carbon stock as well as estimates on the organic carbon stock annually stored by tree growth.

This chapter presents the estimates on some variables related to forest protective functions. Physical site characteristics as represented by slope, aspect and position of terrain may determine local climate conditions affecting distribution of phytocenosis on a topographical scale (De Philippis, 1961). These three variables also influence the composition and productivity of the forest, because they are closely related to soil features (depth, profile development, structure and texture) (Spurr & Barnes, 1980). Being correlated with climatic variables, slope and aspect, together with elevation, not only affect species composition, but also the productivity of stands (Stage & Salas, 2007). These variables are generally tested and included among the independent variables in growth models (e.g., Di Cosmo et al., 2020; Gasparini et al., 2017), separately or combined in complex indices (e.g., Roise & Betters, 1981; Stage, 1976).

The productive aspects are closely related to protection aspects of forests as well, because stands with different composition and productivity have different protection capabilities. This is not only due to their naturally diverse potential for protection, but also to the silvicultural techniques and the method of utilisation applied to obtain goods and ecosystem services that are themselves conditioned by composition and productivity.

It is simple to recognize the important protection effects of forests on steep slopes. Logging is generally limited or forbidden on terrains over 60% slope. However, Schönenberger and Brang (2004) reported that on steep terrain, pronounced variation in slope and aspect leads to a high variability in mesoclimate and small-scale microhabitat patterns, which increases the mutual influence between surface erosion and rockfalls on one side and forest on the other side. Viewing the relationship between terrain and stand from another perspective, we can observe that site features as represented by slope, aspect and land position originate different levels of vulnerability for soil stability to risk factors. For example, meso- and micro-climate features as affected by aspect may lead to different risk levels for causes of instability, such as snow movement (avalanches, creeping, etc.). Hence, estimates on wooded areas in the classes adopted for the three variables allow an indirect evaluation on the portion of the national territory for which forests have an important protective role (Sect. 11.2).

In Sect. 11.3, the relationship between stand and soil is observed in reverse to view the forest from a soil perspective. In fact, it is true that the forest protects the soil, but it is also true that soil stability is a prerequisite for the maintenance of forest cover. The main estimates on the wooded areas affected by different types of land instability are shown and discussed in this section. Italian national regulations have long recognised the fundamental importance of forests in the protection of soil and water. The estimates of wooded areas officially subject to hydrogeological constraint are shown and discussed in Sect. 11.4. Finally, in Sect. 11.5 estimates on the presence of forest management aimed at a primary objective are presented, including the functions of direct and indirect protection.

11.2 Physical Site Conditions

The physical characteristics considered to describe the site conditions are slope, land position and aspect.

Terrain slope, namely the ratio of difference in height between two points divided by the horizontal distance between the two points, has been calculated starting from inclinations measured in the field (cf. Chap. 4). Five slope classes were adopted (Table 11.1). Tables 11.2 and 11.3 show the estimates of Forest and Other wooded land area by terrain slope classes. A total of 45.1% of Forest area in Italy is characterised by steep terrains (slope above 40%, Fig. 11.1). In Other wooded land, the percentage of steep terrain area is lower (25.1%), but there is a high incidence of not classified area (35.4%). Considering only Forest, all Alpine regions (Piemonte, Valle d’Aosta, Lombardia, Alto Adige, Trentino, Friuli-Venezia Giulia and Liguria) have steep terrain rates higher than the national average, while Puglia (48.3%) and Sardegna (35.7%) have the highest rates of Forest area with a slope below 20%.

Table 11.1 Slope classes (%) with respective inclinations (degrees) / Classi di pendenza percentuale e corrispondenti valori di inclinazione (gradi)
Table 11.2 Forest area by ground slope class / Estensione del Bosco ripartito per classi di pendenza del terreno
Table 11.3 Other wooded land area by ground slope class / Estensione delle Altre terre boscate ripartite per classi di pendenza del terreno
Fig. 11.1 
figure 1

Percent of forest area by ground slope class / Ripartizione percentuale dell'area del Bosco per classe di pendenza del terreno

Land position was assessed in the field by sight classification of the extended and local area. The extended land position refers to a wide surface, variable from a few hectares to tens of hectares, surrounding the sample unit; the local area land position applies to AdS25 (about 2000 m2). For both attributes five classes were adopted (Tables 11.4 and 11.5). Area estimates by extended area land position are shown in Table 11.6 (Forest) and in Table 11.7 (Other wooded land). Medium slope is the prevailing position type either in Forest (53.5%) and in Other wooded land (35.2%). Figure 11.2 shows the rates of all extended land position classes for Forest. National rates are also confirmed at the regional level. A high percentage of flat land position area can be noted in Puglia (20.6%) compared to the other regions.

Table 11.4 Classes of extended land position / Classi relative al tipo di giacitura dell’area estesa
Table 11.5 Classes of local land position / Classi relative al tipo di giacitura locale
Table 11.6 Forest area by extended land position class / Estensione del Bosco ripartito per classi di giacitura dell'area estesa
Table 11.7 Other wooded land area by extended land position class / Estensione delle Altre terre boscate ripartite per classi di giacitura dell'area estesa
Fig. 11.2 
figure 2

Percent of Forest area by extended land position class / Ripartizione percentuale dell’area del Bosco per classe di giacitura estesa

In regard to local area land position, area estimates by position class are given for Forest in Tables 11.8 and in Fig. 11.3, and for Other wooded land in Table 11.9. In Forest, inclined plane position prevails both at the national level, with 68.7% of total area, and in all regions.

Table 11.8 Forest area by local land position class / Estensione del Bosco ripartito per classi di giacitura dell'area locale
Fig. 11.3 
figure 3

Percent of Forest area by local land position class / Ripartizione percentuale dell’area del Bosco per classe di giacitura locale

Table 11.9 Other wooded land area by local land position class / Estensione delle Altre terre boscate ripartite per classi di giacitura dell'area locale

In the field, aspect was measured standing at the sample point and aiming a magnetic compass downward along the maximum slope direction. Nine aspect classes were considered (Table 11.10), each 45° wide. Aspect class rates at the national level are rather homogeneous both in Forest, ranging from 10 to 13%, and in Other wooded land (7–9%) as shown in Tables 11.11 and 11.12. The class ‘no aspect’ generally occurs for low percentage of areas (2–3%).

Table 11.10 Classes of terrain aspect / Classi di esposizione
Table 11.11 Forest area by class of aspect / Estensione del Bosco ripartito per classi di esposizione
Table 11.12 Other wooded land area by class of aspect / Estensione delle Altre terre boscate ripartite per classi di esposizione

Additional estimates about ground slope, land position and terrain aspect for the inventory categories and for the Tall trees forest types are available at https://www.inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC.

11.3 Terrain Instability

Terrain instability is conditioned by site morphological characteristics, especially slope, and by soil structure and geology. Instability may occur to such an extent as to affect the stability of stands.

INFC2015 has visibly determined four types of instability during the field surveys: shallow and deep-seated landslides, water erosion and flooding, rockfall and rolling, and snowslides and avalanches (Table 11.13). At least one type of instability was observed on 15.2% of the national Forest area (Table 11.14 and Fig. 11.4), and at the regional level, the percentage ranges between 7.8% (Basilicata) and 26.3% (Valle d’Aosta). The most widespread instability type in Forest is rockfall and rolling (6.4% of total area).

Table 11.13 Classes of terrain instability / Classi relative ai tipi di dissesto
Table 11.14 Forest area by class of terrain instability / Estensione del Bosco ripartito per tipo di dissesto
Fig. 11.4 
figure 4

Percent of Forest area by terrain instability class / Ripartizione percentuale dell’area del Bosco per classe di dissesto idrogeologico

Considering shallow and deep-seated landslides, a value much higher than the national average (3.6%) was observed in Emilia-Romagna (14.4%). The percentage of Forest area with instability due to snowslides and avalanches is very low at the national level (0.6%) and in most regions. It is noticeable in only three Alpine regions: Valle d’Aosta (5.4%), Alto Adige (5.6%) and Trentino (3.8%). In these three regions, the percent of area with the same instability causes is even higher in Other wooded land (17.6% in Valle d’Aosta, 16.9% in Alto Adige, 22.4% in Trentino; Table 11.15).

Table 11.15 Other wooded land area by class of terrain instability / Estensione delle Altre terre boscate ripartite per tipo di dissesto

Additional estimates on hydrogeological instability concerning the inventory categories and the Tall trees forest types are available at https://www.inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC.

11.4 Hydrogeological Constraints

The milestone Italian framework law for forests protection and management is the Royal Decree No. 3267/23, which contains the rules regarding the hydrogeological constraints among its main objectives. This legal framework was later completed with other state and regional norms, to adapt to changing needs. The purpose of the hydrogeological constraint is to preserve the physical environment by avoiding forest utilisation practices that could bring about denudation, trigger erosion and cause loss of stability, disturb the water regimen or have the potential for other public damage. Nevertheless, the hydrogeological constraint does not preclude the possibility of intervention in forest areas, but places limits on owners, such as the necessity of authorisation for the transformation of forests into other types of cultivation and for the transformation of undisturbed terrain into terrain subjected to periodic tilling. Forest management on constrained terrains, moreover, must be conducted according to modalities defined by the so-called Overall and Forest Police Regulations.

Table 11.16 indicates the presence of hydrogeological constraints on the greater part of the total wooded area in Italy (80.1%). These constraints regard above all the Forest, where they are applicable to 86.6% of the area, while for Other wooded land the constrained area rate is 50.0%. The percentage of constrained Forest area is very high, with values above 95% in some regions of North and Central Italy (Fig. 11.5): Trentino, Alto Adige, Umbria, Toscana. Among the other regions, Sardegna is an exception, with only 51.6% of the Forest area subjected to hydrogeological constraints.

Table 11.16 Forest and Other wooded land area by presence of hydrogeological constraints / Estensione del Bosco e delle Altre terre boscate ripartiti per presenza del vincolo idrogeologico
Fig. 11.5 
figure 5

Percent of Forest and Other wooded land area by presence of hydrogeological constraints / Ripartizione percentuale dell’area del Bosco e delle Altre terre boscate con presenza di vincolo idrogeologico

Other estimates on hydrogeological constraint in wooded areas, for the inventory categories and for Tall trees forest types are available at https://www.inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC.

11.5 Primary Designated Management Objective

During the field surveys, INFC2015 collected data on the presence of a primary designated management objective as a component of attributes related to sylviculture and management. Such data was obtained by direct assessment, planning documents and interviews with local forest technicians. Table 11.17 shows the eight classes adopted for primary management objectives and their definitions. Estimates about the presence of a primary function in Forest are shown in Table 11.18, while Fig. 11.6 shows the percentage of Forest area with a primary function, at regional and national levels.

Table 11.17 Classes of primary designated management objective / Classi relative alla funzione prioritaria
Table 11.18 Forest area by primary designated management objective / Estensione del Bosco ripartito per presenza e tipo di funzione prioritaria
Fig. 11.6 
figure 6

Percent of Forest area by primary designated management objective / Ripartizione percentuale dell’area del Bosco per funzione prioritaria

In Italy, 86.8% of the Forest area has no primary designated management objective. The rate of Forest area with a primary objective exceeds 20% only in four regions: Valle d’Aosta, Lombardia, Umbria and Sardegna. Among the considered management objectives, wood and timber production has the highest rate nationwide, 6.7% of the total area, followed by nature conservation with 2.1%. The protective function, both direct and indirect, occurs only on 2.1% of Forest area at the national level, but the Forest area percentage is rather high in Valle d’Aosta (23.7%) and in Alto Adige (11.5%). Forest area primarily managed for recreation is negligible nationwide, while non-wood products (1.3% Forest area at the national level) mark a notable percent of Forest area only in Sardegna due to cork production (10.1%). Further estimates on the presence of a primary designated management objective, for the inventory categories of Forest, are available at https://www.inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC.

The percentage of Forest area where one management objective is predominant, is very low. This information, coupled with the wide presence of hydrogeological constraints, as discussed in Sect. 11.4, shows that a determinant role in protecting soil and water resources is recognized in forests regardless of a primary designated objective, which confirms how forest management in Italy is oriented towards ensuring the multifunctional role of forests.