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The El Nino of 1685–1687 in Golconda and Northern Coromandel, South Asia: Drought, Famine, and Mughal Wars

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Droughts, Floods, and Global Climatic Anomalies in the Indian Ocean World

Part of the book series: Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies ((IOWS))

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Abstract

Methodologically, this chapter explores the VOC (Dutch East India Company) archives and draws upon Richard Grove’s formulation of coeval early modern climatic anomalies across South-and-South-East Asia to analyse the impact of the 1685–1687 ENSO in northern Coromandel (South Asia) that coalesced with the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb’s southern campaigns (1682–1707). The chapter argues that while crop failures could often briskly affect non-combatants such as peasants and weavers, combatants were also quite vulnerable to diminishing food security. Coeval ENSO-driven South Asian and South-East Asian climatic anomalies forged connections across the Indian Ocean World: Drought-and-famine-induced exigencies in South Asia created congenial conditions for the VOC to ship climate refugees to South-east Asia to work their plantations, where anomalous rainfall may have contributed to the spread of depopulating epidemic diseases. The chapter concludes that the 1685–1687 ENSO—along with coeval warfare and political instability—marked a turning point in northern Coromandel’s economy.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    For more details, see: Om Prakash, European Commercial Enterprise in Pre-Colonial India, The New Cambridge History of India, II.5 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).

  2. 2.

    For a summary of Dutch perceptions of India, see: Markus Vink, Mission to Madurai: Dutch Embassies to the Nayaka Court in the Seventeenth Century. Dutch Sources on South Asia, 1600–1825, vol. 4 (New Delhi: Manohar, 2012), 35–37, 86–87, 89, 92. See also: Om Prakash, ‘Dutch Source Material on Indian Maritime History in the Early Modern Period: An Evaluation,’ Indian Historical Review, 8, 1–2 (1981–1982), 35–43.

  3. 3.

    James Tracy, ‘Asian Despotism? Mughal Government as Seen from the Dutch East India Company Factory in Surat,’ Journal of Early Modern History, 3, 3 (1999), 256–80.

  4. 4.

    Francois E. Matthes, ‘Report of Committee on Glaciers,’ Transactions, American Geophysical Union, 20, 4 (1939), 518–20.

  5. 5.

    Jean M. Grove, The Little Ice Age (London: Methuen, 1988), 3–4.

  6. 6.

    For a summary and its effects on world history, see: Geoffrey Parker, Global Crisis: War, Climate Change and Catastrophe in the Seventeenth Century (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013).

  7. 7.

    Christian Pfister, Rudolf Brázdil, Jürg Luterbacher, Astrid E.J. Ogilvie, and Sam White, ‘Early Modern Europe,’ in The Palgrave Handbook of Climate History, eds. Sam White, Christian Pfister, and Franz Mauelshagen (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 268.

  8. 8.

    Joëlle L. Gergis, and Anthony M. Fowler, ‘A History of ENSO Events Since A.D. 1525: Implications for Future Climate Change,’ Climatic Change, 92, 3–4 (2009), 369–72.

  9. 9.

    John F. Richards, The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World (Berkeley: California University Press, 2003), 82–83.

  10. 10.

    Richard Grove and George Adamson, El Niño in World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 4–7.

  11. 11.

    Richard Grove, ‘El Nino Chronology and the History of Socio-economic and Agrarian Crisis in South and Southeast Asia 1250–1990,’ in Land Use-Historical Perspectives: Focus on Indo-Gangetic Plains, eds. Yash P. Abrol, Satpal Sangwan, and Mithilesh K. Tiwari (New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 2002), 141, 148, 154.

  12. 12.

    Adapted from: Gergis and Fowler, ‘A History of ENSO Events,’ 370.

  13. 13.

    Peter Boomgaard, ‘Crisis Mortality in Seventeenth-Century Indonesia,’ in Asian Population History, eds. Liu Ts’ui-jung, James Lee, David Sven Reher, Osamu Saito, and Wang Feng (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 205, 210.

  14. 14.

    The rainfall data presented in Table 4.2 is mainly culled from the author’s unpublished PhD thesis, ‘From Camp to Port: Mughal Warfare and the Economy of Coromandel, 1682–1710’ (Leiden University, 2019). The data is based on unpublished VOC archival records kept at the National Archive (henceforth NA), The Hague, The Netherlands, and a translated Mughal chronicle written in Persian, whose details are as follows: NA VOC 8808, Willem Hartsinck (director in Masulipatnam) to Cornelis Speelman (governor-general in Batavia), 17 Mar. 1682, f.61v.–f.62r.; NA VOC 1411, Hartsinck to Gentlemen Seventeen (in Amsterdam), 8 Oct. 1685, f.61v.–f.62r.; NA VOC 1411, J.J. Pits (governor in Pulicat) to Gentlemen Seventeen, 12 Nov. 1685, f.5r.; NA VOC 1423, Pits to Joannes Camphuis (governor-general in Batavia), 27 June 1686, f.121v., f.138r.; NA VOC 1423, Pits to Camphuijs, 26 Aug. 1686, f.168v.; NA VOC 1423, Pits to Camphuijs, 14 Sept. 1686, f.176r., f.177v.; NA VOC 1438, Pits to Gentlemen Seventeen, 14 Nov. 1686, f.1066v., f.1076v.; NA VOC 1438, Laurens Pit (governor in Pulicat) to Camphuijs, 6 Aug. 1687, f.1176r., f.1182r., f.1185v.; NA VOC 1438, Joannes Huijsman (director in Masulipatnam) to Camphuijs, 19 Aug. 1687, f.1243r.; NA VOC 1537, Bruijnig Wildelant (director in Masulipatnam) to Willem van Outhoorn (governor-general in Batavia), 19 Sept. 1693, f.643v.; NA VOC 1570, Wildelant to van Outhoorn, 8 Oct. 1695 f.343.; NA VOC 1610, Laurens Pit (governor in Nagapatnam) van Outhoorn, 18 May 1698, f.14–f.16, f.36–f.37; NA VOC 8824, Joannes van Steelant (governor in Nagapatnam) to Joan van Hoorn (governor-general in Batavia), 25 May 1706, f.387; NA VOC 8686, van Steelant to van Hoorn, 09 Sept. 1707, f.466–f.468; NA VOC 8373, van Steelant to van Hoorn, 7 May 1709, f.104–f.105; Jadunath Sarkar (trans.), Maasir-i-Alamgiri: A History of the Emperor Aurangzib-Alamgir (reign 1658–1707 A.D.) (Calcutta: The Asiatic Society, Reprint Edition 1990), 178.

  15. 15.

    Grove and Adamson, El Niño in World History, 159–60. See also: Chapters by Campbell, Gooding, Schottenhammer, Warren, and Williamson, this volume.

  16. 16.

    Boomgaard, ‘Crisis Mortality,’ 200.

  17. 17.

    H.K. Sherwani, History of the Qutb Shahi Dynasty (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1974), vii–xiii, 2–3, 6–9, 14–16, 199–202.

  18. 18.

    See: Jos Gommans, Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and High Roads to Empire, 1500–1700 (London: Routledge, 2002), 7–37.

  19. 19.

    Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Political Economy of Commerce Southern India 1500–1650 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 148–51, 154, 157–58.

  20. 20.

    For illustrative maps with indexes on the economy of the Deccan and South India see: Irfan Habib, An Atlas of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps with Detailed Notes, Bibliography and Index (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1982), 14B, 15B, 16B.

  21. 21.

    John F. Richards, Mughal Administration in Golconda, 21–23, 25–26.

  22. 22.

    For an overview of Mughal expansion in the Deccan before Aurangzeb became the Mughal emperor, see: John F. Richards, The Mughal Empire, 52–54, 112–13, 120–21, 137–38, 154–58; Muzaffar Alam and Sanjay Subrahmanyam, ‘The Deccan Frontier and Mughal Expansion, ca. 1600: Contemporary Perspectives,’ Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 47, 3 (2004), 357–89.

  23. 23.

    NA VOC 8808, Hartsinck to Speelman, 17 Mar. 1682, f.152r., f.158v; NA VOC 1378, Hartsinck to Speelman, 12 Sept. 1682, f.1749v.–f.1750r.

  24. 24.

    NA VOC 8809, Hartsinck to Camphuijs, 13 Aug. 1683, f.101r.

  25. 25.

    NA VOC 8811, Hartsinck to Camphuijs, 7 Oct. 1684, f.174r.

  26. 26.

    NA VOC 1411, Hartsink to Gentlemen Seventeen, 08 Oct. 1685, f.61v.–f.62r.

  27. 27.

    NA VOC 1411, Pits to Gentlemen Seventeen, 12 Nov. 1685, f.5r.

  28. 28.

    NA VOC 1423, Pits to Camphuijs, 27 June 1686, f.121v., 138r.

  29. 29.

    NA VOC 1423, Pits to Camphuijs, 26 Aug. 1686, f.168v.; NA VOC 1423, Pits to Camphuijs, 14 Sept. 1686, f.176r., f.177v.

  30. 30.

    NA VOC 1424, Laurens Pit (governor-elect of Coromandel in Masulipatnam) to Gentlemen Seventeen 13 Oct. 1686, f.847v.–f.848v.

  31. 31.

    NA VOC 1438, from Pits to Gentlemen Seventeen, 14 Nov. 1686, f.1066v. f.1076v.

  32. 32.

    NA VOC 1438, Pit to Gentlemen Seventeen 12 Dec. 1686, f.1079v.

  33. 33.

    NA VOC 1438, Pits and Pit to Camphuijs, 27 Mar. 1687, f.1049r.

  34. 34.

    Sarkar, Maasir-i-Alamgiri, 175–77.

  35. 35.

    NA VOC 1438, Huijsman to Camphuijs, 12 June 1687, f.1169r.–f.1169v.

  36. 36.

    NA VOC 1360, Willem Carel Hartsinck (President in Pulicat) to Rijcklof van Goens (governor-general in Batavia), 23 Feb. 1680, f.1452r.

  37. 37.

    Daniel Havart, Op-en ondergangh van Cormandel, Eerste Deel (Amsterdam: Jan ten Hoorn, 1693), 214–15.

  38. 38.

    NA VOC 1438, Pit to Camphuijs, 31 May 1687, f.1113r., f.1117v.

  39. 39.

    NA VOC 1438, Pit to Camphuijs, 6 Oct. 1687, f.1176r., f.1182r., f.1185v.

  40. 40.

    NA VOC 1438, Huijsman to Camphuijs, 19 Oct. 1687, f.1242 v.

  41. 41.

    Sarkar, Maasir–i–Alamgiri, 178.

  42. 42.

    NA VOC 1438, Huijsman to Camphuijs, 19 Oct. 1687, f.1243r.

  43. 43.

    Havart, Op-en ondergangh, Eerste Deel, 142.

  44. 44.

    Ibid., 215–18.

  45. 45.

    NA VOC 1438, Pit to Camphuijs, 09 Oct. 1687, f.1247v.

  46. 46.

    For an overview of how climatic, environmental, economic, and military factors shaped patterns of bondage in the IOW, see: Gwyn Campbell (ed.), Bondage and the Environment in the Indian Ocean World (Cham, CH: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018).

  47. 47.

    W.Ph. Coolhaas (ed.), Generale Missiven van Gouverneurs-generaal en Raden aan Heren XVII der Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, Deel III (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1968), 338, 355, 357–58. J.A. van der Chijs (ed.), Dagh-Register gehouden int Casteel Batavia vant passerende daer ter plaetse en het geheel Nederlandts-India Anno 1661 (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff and Batavia: Landsdrukkerij, 1889), 325.

  48. 48.

    W.Ph. Coolhaas (ed.), Generale Missiven van Gouverneurs-generaal en Raden aan Heren XVII der Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, Deel V (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1975), 57.

  49. 49.

    NA VOC 1438, Pits to Camphuijs, 27 May 1687, f.1059r.–f.1059v., f.1063v.–f.1064r.

  50. 50.

    NA VOC 1438, Pit to Camphuijs, 31 May 1687, f.1131v.

  51. 51.

    NA VOC 1438, Huijsman to Camphuijs, 12 June 1687, f.1169v.

  52. 52.

    NA VOC 1438, Pit to Camphuijs, 6 Aug. 1687, f.1186v.–f.1187r.

  53. 53.

    Coolhaas (ed.), Generale Missiven, Deel V, 133, 137.

  54. 54.

    Coolhaas (ed.), Generale Missiven, Deel V, 30–31, 64–65, 104, 115–16, 147, 251. For heavy rainfall in Banda in 1685, see: W.Ph. Coolhaas (ed.), Generale Missiven van Gouverneurs-Generaal en Raden aan Heren XVII der Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, Deel IV (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1968), 792.

  55. 55.

    Coolhaas (ed.), Generale Missiven, Deel V, 250, 255.

  56. 56.

    Havart, Op–en ondergangh, Eerste Deel, 216–18.

  57. 57.

    W.Ph. Coolhaas (ed.), Generale Missiven van Gouverneurs-Generaal en Raden aan Heren XVII der Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, Deel II (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1968), 223–24. H.T. Colenbrander (ed.), Dagh-Register gehouden int Casteel Batavia vant passerende daer ter plaetse als over geheel Nederlandts-Indie Anno 1643–1644 (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1902), 33, 41.

  58. 58.

    Havart, Op-en ondergangh, Eerste Deel, 214.

  59. 59.

    See also: Richards, Mughal Administration in Golconda, 69.

  60. 60.

    Sarkar, Maasir-i-Alamgiri, 182.

  61. 61.

    NA VOC 1510, Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb to Johannes Bacherus (decree), 24 Oct. 1689, f.377r.–f.377v.

  62. 62.

    NA VOC 1473, Pit to Camphuijs, 23 July 1690, f.299r.–f.299v.

  63. 63.

    NA VOC 1499, Barent Wildelant (director in Masulipatnam) to Camphuijs, 08 Oct. 1691, f.272v.–f.273r.

  64. 64.

    NA VOC 1508, Pit to Gentlemen Seventeen, 26 Jan. 1692, f.127r.–f.127v.; NA VOC 1508, Pit to van Oudhoorn, 10 Oct. 1692, f.148r.

  65. 65.

    Harihar Das, The Norris Embassy to Aurangzib (1699–1702) (Calcutta: Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay, 1959), 125–26.

  66. 66.

    Greg Bankoff and Joseph Christensen (eds.), Natural Hazards and Peoples in the Indian Ocean World: Bordering on Danger (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016); Sam White, The Climate of Rebellion in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011).

  67. 67.

    Grove and Adamson, El Niño in World History, 67–68.

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Acknowledgements

I thank the editor, reviewer(s), and Dr. Manjusha Kuruppath for their helpful comments on previous drafts of this chapter; and Dr. Monisha Sanyal, McGill University, and Anasuya Moitra, University of Tübingen, who educated me on the workings of epidemic diseases.

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    Archisman Chaudhuri

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    Philip Gooding

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Chaudhuri, A. (2022). The El Nino of 1685–1687 in Golconda and Northern Coromandel, South Asia: Drought, Famine, and Mughal Wars. In: Gooding, P. (eds) Droughts, Floods, and Global Climatic Anomalies in the Indian Ocean World. Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-98198-3_4

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