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Legal Considerations for Space Resources

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Abstract

Recent developments in the United States and other nations provide a legal basis for the acquisition and use of space resources by private entities. However, there remain questions and controversies regarding the laws and rules that will govern the use of resources in space, especially for commercial purposes. Uncertainty about the legality of space-resource utilization could discourage investment in space exploration and limit development of resource utilization capabilities. In order to address this issue directly, we consider throughout this chapter the following hypothetical situation: a for-profit commercial venture (the Venture) is technically equipped and adequately funded to extract and use space resources for commercial purposes. With this venture in mind, we consider legal factors that may impact space-resource operations as the industry grows and develops.

Austin C. Murnane—Austin C. Murnane is a senior legal counsel for Blue Origin, LLC. He is a member of the International Institute of Space Law, the American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics, and other aerospace organizations. He holds a Bachelor of Science degree from the U.S. Naval Academy, a Juris Doctor from Fordham University School of Law, a Master of Science Degree from Colorado School of Mines, and he is a Ph.D. candidate in the Space Resources Program of the Colorado School of Mines. The author thanks Dr. Andrea Harrington and Dr. Fabio Tronchetti for their tutelage and review of this work. Any remaining errors are the author’s responsibility, as are any opinions and views expressed herein, which do not reflect the opinions or views of Blue Origin, LLC, its affiliates, or any person besides the author.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See, e.g., 2015 U.S. SPACE Act; 2017 Luxembourg Space Law; 2019 UAE Space Law.

  2. 2.

    See, e.g., OSI Open Letter (2020).

  3. 3.

    Full title: Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (1967).

  4. 4.

    Full title: Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space (1968).

  5. 5.

    Full title: Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (1972).

  6. 6.

    Full title: Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (1975).

  7. 7.

    Full title: Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (1979).

  8. 8.

    As of 2020, the state parties to the Moon Agreement are Armenia, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Chile, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Mexico, Morocco, Netherlands, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Uruguay, and Venezuela. See Treaties Status (2020).

  9. 9.

    See “positive law,” Black’s (2019).

  10. 10.

    See “customary law,” Black’s.

  11. 11.

    See “citable” Black’s.

  12. 12.

    See S.S. Lotus (1927) at 19.

  13. 13.

    As of 2020, 110 out of 195 UN member states have ratified the Outer Space Treaty. The largest non-ratifier, in terms of population, is Ethiopia, which has signed but not ratified the Treaty. The largest non-ratifier, in terms of gross domestic product, is Iran, which has also signed but not ratified. Treaties Status (2020).

  14. 14.

    Outer Space Treaty (1967) art. VI.

  15. 15.

    Outer Space Treaty (1967) art. VII; Liability Convention (1972) arts. II—V. Note that the treaties generally hold the “launching State” liable for damages caused by space objects.

  16. 16.

    Outer Space Treaty art. VIII.

  17. 17.

    Outer Space Treaty art. XI; Registration Convention (1975) arts. II, IV, V.

  18. 18.

    See, e.g., U.S. Code Title 51, National and Commercial Space Programs.

  19. 19.

    Outer Space Treaty arts. VI, VIII.

  20. 20.

    Outer Space Treaty (1967) art. VII; Liability Convention art. I; Registration Convention art. I.

  21. 21.

    Liability Convention art. I; Registration Convention art. I.

  22. 22.

    Registration Convention art. II.

  23. 23.

    G.A. Res. 62/101 (2008).

  24. 24.

    U.S. Registry (2020).

  25. 25.

    Israel Registry (2019).

  26. 26.

    Schmidt-Tedd and Soucek (2020).

  27. 27.

    See, e.g., Restatement: Foreign Rel. (2018) § 401.

  28. 28.

    See Benchbook on Int’l L. (1972) II.A-2; see also Gorove (1972) 313‒14.

  29. 29.

    See, e.g., ILC Report (2006) Annex V 231‒232 ¶ 14.

  30. 30.

    Restatement: Foreign Rel. § 402 n.4.

  31. 31.

    ILC Report (2006) Annex V, 231 ¶ 15.

  32. 32.

    Restatement: Foreign Relations (2018) § 402 n.4.

  33. 33.

    See, e.g., Terrorism exception, 28 U.S.C. § 1605A (2008).

  34. 34.

    Benchbook on Int’l L. (1972) II.A-2.

  35. 35.

    Certain persons, especially diplomats, may enjoy immunity from territorial jurisdiction. See, e.g., the Diplomatic Relations Act (1978), 22 U.S.C. § 254.

  36. 36.

    See, e.g., U.S. Const. art. IV § 3 (“The Congress shall have power to dispose of... the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States.”).

  37. 37.

    See, e.g., Bagnell (1839).

  38. 38.

    See, e.g., Coal and mineral rights (1993), 42 U.S.C. § 299.

  39. 39.

    Curry (2007).

  40. 40.

    Outer Space Treaty (1967) art. II.

  41. 41.

    Note, however, that the term “celestial body” lacks a clear definition in international law, providing a possible ambiguity regarding the territorial prohibition in Article II of the Outer Space Treaty. See Lyall and Larsen (2018) 182.

  42. 42.

    Benchbook on Int’L L. (1972) II.A-3.

  43. 43.

    Restatement: Foreign Rel. (2018) § 402 comment i.

  44. 44.

    See, e.g., NPD 8020.7G (2013).

  45. 45.

    Restatement: Foreign Rel. § 402 comment j.

  46. 46.

    Outer Space Treaty (1967) art. I.

  47. 47.

    Hobe et al. 41 (2016).

  48. 48.

    Outer Space Treaty art. I. A common misconception is that the Treaty declares space and its regions to be “the province of all mankind.” On the contrary, the Treaty declares “the exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies” to be humankind’s province. By employing “province” to describe activities (exploration and use), the Treaty relies on a less common usage, in which “province” refers to a “proper or appropriate function or scope” instead of a physical area or region. Merriam-Webster (2021).

  49. 49.

    Outer Space Treaty art. I.

  50. 50.

    Outer Space Treaty art. III.

  51. 51.

    Outer Space Treaty art. IV.

  52. 52.

    Outer Space Treaty art. V; Rescue Agreement (1968).

  53. 53.

    Outer Space Treaty arts. VI and VII; Liability Convention (1972).

  54. 54.

    Outer Space Treaty art. VI and VIII; Registration Convention (1975).

  55. 55.

    Outer Space Treaty art. IX.

  56. 56.

    Outer Space Treaty (1967) art. II.

  57. 57.

    See, e.g., Markoff 83 (1970); see also Christol (1984).

  58. 58.

    2015 U.S. SPACE Act.

  59. 59.

    2017 Luxembourg Space Law.

  60. 60.

    2019 UAE Space Law.

  61. 61.

    2021 Japan Space Law.

  62. 62.

    The Artemis Accords are a series of bilateral agreements establishing shared principles, guidelines, and best practices for space exploration with the intention of advancing the Artemis Program, a United States-led multilateral effort to conduct sustainable human exploration of the Moon. Artemis Accords (2020) § 1.

  63. 63.

    Artemis Accords § 10.2.

  64. 64.

    See, e.g., Hofacker (2020), Amos (2016).

  65. 65.

    Fishermen’s Protective Act, 22 U.S.C. § 1972 (1967).

  66. 66.

    Deep Seabed Act (1980) 30 U.S.C. § 1401 et seq.

  67. 67.

    Tronchetti (2009) 111.

  68. 68.

    30 U.S.C. §§ 1411‒12.

  69. 69.

    Id. § 1402(a).

  70. 70.

    Id. § 51,303.

  71. 71.

    51 U.S.C. § 51,302.

  72. 72.

    2015 U.S. SPACE Act.

  73. 73.

    UNCLOS (1982) art. 87(1)(e).

  74. 74.

    Outer Space Treaty (1967) art. II.

  75. 75.

    Outer Space Treaty art. VI.

  76. 76.

    Outer Space Treaty art. IX.

  77. 77.

    Outer Space Treaty art. I, III, IX, X, XI, and XIII.

  78. 78.

    Outer Space Treaty art. IV, IX, and XI.

  79. 79.

    IISL Draft (1965) (emphasis added).

  80. 80.

    Hobe et al. 41.

  81. 81.

    See, e.g., Tronchetti 32, 211‒25 (2009).

  82. 82.

    Outer Space Treaty art. VII; Liability Convention art. III.

  83. 83.

    Outer Space Treaty arts. VI and VIII; Liability Convention; Registration Convention.

  84. 84.

    Outer Space Treaty art. VII; Liability Convention art. VIII.

  85. 85.

    Hitches (2020).

  86. 86.

    Space Command (2021).

  87. 87.

    2015 U.S. Space Act § 51,302(a)(3).

  88. 88.

    Hitches.

  89. 89.

    See, e.g., RFP (2020).

  90. 90.

    See, e.g., U.S. Atomic Energy Act (1954) 42 U.S.C. § 2011 et seq.; U.S. Nuclear Waste Policy Act (1982) 42 U.S.C. § 10,101 et seq.

  91. 91.

    U.S. Gen. Mining Act (1872) 30 U.S.C. § 23.

  92. 92.

    See generally Colo. Rev. Stat., Tit. 34 Art. 43 (2018).

  93. 93.

    McDowell (2002) 2.

  94. 94.

    McDowell 4.

  95. 95.

    Building Blocks (2019) 11.3.

  96. 96.

    Artemis Accords (2020) § 11.6–11.

  97. 97.

    Koons et al. (2010) § 2.1 “Scope of the ISS Visiting Vehicle Requirements”.

  98. 98.

    Wolf Amendment (2011).

  99. 99.

    Chunlai et al. (2019).

  100. 100.

    CNSA (2021).

  101. 101.

    Outer Space Treaty (1967) art. IX.

  102. 102.

    Id.

  103. 103.

    Outer Space Treaty art. IV.

  104. 104.

    Outer Space Treaty arts. VI, VII, VII; Liability Convention (1972); Registration Convention (1975).

  105. 105.

    COSPAR Policy (2020) 13.

  106. 106.

    COSPAR Policy (2020) 13. COSPAR’s Policy also advises that COSPAR itself may, upon request, consider providing advice on category determination in consultation with Member National Scientific Institutions and International Scientific Unions.

  107. 107.

    COSPAR Policy 13‒14.

  108. 108.

    COSPAR Policy 16.

  109. 109.

    NID 8715.128 (2020) 4.

  110. 110.

    COSPAR Policy 16.

  111. 111.

    NID 8715.128 4.

  112. 112.

    NID 8715.128 4.

  113. 113.

    COSPAR Policy 14.

  114. 114.

    COSPAR Policy (2020) 14.

  115. 115.

    COSPAR Policy 16.

  116. 116.

    COSPAR Policy 21.

  117. 117.

    COSPAR Policy 14.

  118. 118.

    COSPAR Policy 14.

  119. 119.

    COSPAR Policy 16.

  120. 120.

    COSPAR Policy 14, 16.

  121. 121.

    COSPAR Policy 14.

  122. 122.

    COSPAR Policy 14.

  123. 123.

    COSPAR Policy 16.

  124. 124.

    COSPAR Policy (2020) 17‒18.

  125. 125.

    COSPAR Policy 19.

  126. 126.

    COSPAR Policy 14.

  127. 127.

    COSPAR Policy 14.

  128. 128.

    COSPAR Policy 14.

  129. 129.

    COSPAR Policy 16.

  130. 130.

    COSPAR Policy 14.

  131. 131.

    COSPAR Policy 14‒15.

  132. 132.

    COSPAR Policy 15.

  133. 133.

    COSPAR Policy 15.

  134. 134.

    Nat’l Space Council (2020).

  135. 135.

    Nat’l Space Council 5.

  136. 136.

    Nat’l Space Council 6.

  137. 137.

    Nat’l Space Council (2020) 6.

  138. 138.

    Outer Space Treaty (1967) art. V; Rescue Agreement (1968).

  139. 139.

    See, e.g., Marine Casualty Assistance, 46 U.S.C. §§ 2303‒04.

  140. 140.

    NID 8715.128 (2020) 4.

  141. 141.

    One Small Step Act (2020).

  142. 142.

    Artemis Accords (2020) § 9.1.

  143. 143.

    Moon Agreement (1979) art. 11; see also Gangale (2009) 67‒88.

  144. 144.

    Moon Agreement art. 11 ¶ 3.

  145. 145.

    Tronchetti (2009) 55.

  146. 146.

    Treaties Status (2020).

  147. 147.

    Moon Treaty Hearings (1980) 83‒85.

  148. 148.

    Treaties Status.

  149. 149.

    See, e.g., Tronchetti 233‒90.

  150. 150.

    Building Blocks (2019).

  151. 151.

    Vancouver Recommendations (2020).

  152. 152.

    OSI Open Letter (2020).

  153. 153.

    See, e.g., Kerrest (2019).

  154. 154.

    UNCLOS (1982) arts. 140‒170.

  155. 155.

    See, e.g., CLPS (2021) listing “Astrobotic Technology, Blue Origin, Ceres Robotics, Deep Space Systems, Draper, Firefly Aerospace, Intuitive Machines, Lockheed Martin Space, Masten Space Systems, Moon Express, Orbit Beyond, Sierra Nevada Corporation, SpaceX, [and] Tyvak Nano-Satellite Systems” as providers for the NASA Commercial Lunar Payload Services program.

  156. 156.

    NASA, Press Release (Oct. 13, 2020).

  157. 157.

    Artemis Accords (2020) § 10.2.

  158. 158.

    See Sect. 34.2.2.2, above.

  159. 159.

    Ministry of the Economy–Luxembourg, Press Release (Jan. 23, 2019).

  160. 160.

    Belgium/Greece (2019).

  161. 161.

    NASA, Press Release (Dec. 14, 2020).

  162. 162.

    NASA, Press Release (Oct. 13, 2020).

  163. 163.

    Foust, (Dec. 16, 2020a).

  164. 164.

    Chunlai et al. (2019).

  165. 165.

    CNSA (2021).

  166. 166.

    Jones (2020).

  167. 167.

    Chunlai et al.

  168. 168.

    Treaties Status (2020).

  169. 169.

    Ministry of the Economy–Luxembourg, Press Release (Oct. 23, 2019).

  170. 170.

    Wimmer-Schweingruber et al. (2016).

  171. 171.

    Belgium/Greece (2019).

  172. 172.

    Treaties Status.

  173. 173.

    JPL (2018).

  174. 174.

    Kotoky (2018).

  175. 175.

    NASA, Press Release (Oct. 13, 2020).

  176. 176.

    The Japan Times (2020).

  177. 177.

    NASA, Press Release (Oct. 13, 2020).

  178. 178.

    2017 Luxembourg Space Law.

  179. 179.

    The Luxembourg Government, Press Release (Nov. 18, 2020).

  180. 180.

    NASA, Press Release (Oct. 13, 2020).

  181. 181.

    Treaties Status (2020).

  182. 182.

    Radboud University (2018).

  183. 183.

    Soldatkin (2019).

  184. 184.

    Russian-UN (2019).

  185. 185.

    Listner 34‒35 (2019).

  186. 186.

    Chunlai et al. (2019).

  187. 187.

    Exec. Order (2020).

  188. 188.

    Roscosmos, Press Release (Apr. 7, 2020).

  189. 189.

    Tass (May 25, 2020).

  190. 190.

    Foust (Oct. 12, 2020b).

  191. 191.

    CNSA (2021).

  192. 192.

    US Embassy in Ukraine, Press Release (Nov. 17, 2020).

  193. 193.

    2019 UAE Space Law.

  194. 194.

    UAE Space Policy (2016) 44.

  195. 195.

    Id. 44‒45.

  196. 196.

    UAE Space Policy (2016) 48.

  197. 197.

    Press Release, Ministry of the Economy – Luxembourg (Oct. 10, 2017).

  198. 198.

    NASA, Press Release (Oct. 13, 2020).

  199. 199.

    Id.

  200. 200.

    Bridenstine (2020).

  201. 201.

    See, e.g., U.S. Space Policy (2020) 3, 5, 13.

  202. 202.

    Davenport (2021).

  203. 203.

    51 U.S.C. § 50905(b)(2)(B).

  204. 204.

    2015 U.S. SPACE Act.

  205. 205.

    51 U.S.C. § 50903.

  206. 206.

    Payload Review, 14 C.F.R. § 415.57(a).

  207. 207.

    ESA, Press Release (Dec. 27, 2020).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Blue Origin, LLC, 21601 76th Ave S, Kent, WA, 98032, USA

    Austin C. Murnane

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  1. Austin C. Murnane
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Correspondence to Austin C. Murnane .

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  1. Candida Oancea Institute, Polytechnic University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

    Viorel Badescu

  2. Honeybee Robotics, Altadena, CA, USA

    Kris Zacny

  3. California Institute of Technology, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA, USA

    Yoseph Bar-Cohen

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Murnane, A.C. (2023). Legal Considerations for Space Resources. In: Badescu, V., Zacny, K., Bar-Cohen, Y. (eds) Handbook of Space Resources. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97913-3_34

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