Learned but Not Chosen: A Reward Competition Feedback Model for the Origins of Sexual Preferences and Orientations

Abstract

Is sexual orientation an evolutionary adaptation or social construct? With respect to sexual preferences, to what extent are we “born that way” and to what extent does learning matter? This chapter discusses how nature and nurture may interact to shape sexual motivation by reviewing existing literature on sexual preferences and orientations, as well as by considering sex/gender differences in erotic plasticity, sexual fluidity, and the specificity of sexual arousal. We describe how these phenomena might be accounted for by processes in which mind-body feedback loops amplify some sexual responses over others on multiple levels, which we refer to as the Reward Competition Feedback (RCF) model. With respect to sex/gender differences, we describe how these positive feedback processes might be amplified in men compared with women, potentially substantially driven by differences in the constraints and affordances of female and male anatomy. More specifically, we argue that the well-known female-male difference in the concordance of genital and subjective arousal may contribute to well-known differences in sexual specificity and plasticity/fluidity. We further provide convergent support for RCF by reviewing preexisting theories of sexual learning. Finally, we consider some of the ethical implications of models in which sexual orientation might be shaped by experiences over the course of development.

Spotlight Feature: Bisexuality Across Cultures

• Lanna J. Petterson &
• Paul L. Vasey 

1. Laboratory of Comparative Sexuality, Department of Psychology, University of Lethbridge, Alberta, AB, Canada

   Lanna J. Petterson & Paul L. Vasey

Large studies carried out in Western cultures suggest that self-identified bisexual males are relatively rare (Gates, 2011). In the Western psychological literature, a man is considered bisexual if he experiences notable sexual attraction and arousal to both men and women (e.g., Bailey, 2009). Accordingly, bisexual men should show substantial sexual interest in, and arousal to, images of both men and women relative to monosexual men (i.e., those who are exclusively sexually attracted to either women or men). Consistent with this prediction, it has been shown that bisexually identified men, in the West, exhibit a bisexual pattern of genital arousal (i.e., penile tumescence: Rosenthal et al., 2012; but see Rieger et al., 2005), pupil dilation (Rieger & Savin-Williams, 2012), and viewing time (Ebsworth & Lalumière, 2012; Lippa, 2012, 2017).

Outside of Western cultural contexts, bisexuality may be structured differently. This is, in part, because many non-Western cultures employ non-binary gender systems in which some individuals are recognized as neither men, nor women. These gender non-binary roles are commonly filled by feminine, same-sex attracted individuals who are born male—based on genital anatomy—and who often retain their male genitalia (e.g., Nanda, 1999). Contemporary examples include, but are by no means limited to, the kothi of India (Stief, 2017) and the fa’afafine of Samoa (Vasey & VanderLaan, 2014).

Although gender non-binary males such as kothi and fa’afafine are same-sex attracted, they do not engage in sexual interactions with each other; rather, they do so with masculine males who self-identify as men. In cultures such as these, it is not uncommon for men to engage in sexual activity with feminine, gender non-binary males. In the West, such interactions appeared to be much less prevalent. This underscores how men’s sexual interest in feminine, gender non-binary males can vary considerably across different cultural contexts (Whitam, 1992).

Recent psychological research, in India and Samoa, has examined whether the men who are sexually interested in feminine, gender non-binary males show a unique, bisexual pattern of self-reported sexual attraction and viewing time. This research demonstrates that Indian men who have sex with kothi (Stief, 2017) and Samoan men who have sex with fa’afafine (Petterson et al., 2015) exhibit relatively bisexual response patterns, when compared to monosexual males.

Petterson et al. (2016) further examined whether patterns of sexual behavior are associated with unique patterns of self-reported sexual attraction and viewing time among men who had sex with fa’afafine. They showed that men who received and performed fellatio with fa’afafine partners respond in a fairly similar (i.e., bisexual) manner to images of women and men, but showed a slight preference for the former over the later. However, men who received fellatio from fa’afafine, but had not fellated these partners, exhibited a pattern of viewing time that was closer to men who were exclusively sexually interested in women.

In sum, evidence exists that male sexual orientation, particularly bisexuality, manifests differently across disparate cultural contexts. In Western cultures, bisexual patterns of self-reported sexual attraction and viewing times have been found among self-identified bisexual men who report sexual attraction to both men and women, and who have a history of sexual activity with both (e.g., Ebsworth & Lalumière, 2012; Lippa, 2017; Rieger & Savin Williams, 2012). In non-Western contexts such as India and Samoa, bisexual patterns of viewing time do not appear to be contingent on bisexual identity. Furthermore, the majority of men who engage in sexual interactions with kothi or fa’afafine also engage in sexual activity with women, but not with men. This suggests that the manner in which bisexual patterns of sexual attraction manifest behaviorally vary from one culture to the next. Because men’s willingness to engage in sexual interactions with feminine males varies markedly across cultures, the prevalence of bisexual behavior and bisexual patterns of attraction may also vary. This variation may be linked, in part, to the frequency with which feminine, gender non-binary males, such as kothi and fa’afafine, are found in the local social environment. The Indian and Samoan studies demonstrate the importance of continuing research on sexual orientation in non-Western cultures. Much like other aspects of human psychology, cognition, and behavior (Henrich et al., 2010), in the absence of non-Western investigations, our views of male sexual orientation run the risk of being biased, incomplete, or even erroneous.

Spotlight references

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