Exploring the Effects of Immersive Virtual Reality on Learning Outcomes: A Two-Path Model

Abstract

Immersive virtual reality (VR) has attracted widespread attention and has been increasingly adopted in education. However, the influence of immersive VR on learning outcomes is still unclear, with conflicting results emerging from the research. The contradictory research can be attributed to the fact that little research has systematically analyzed the effects of immersive VR on learning processes and ultimately on learning outcomes. Therefore, this study focuses on analyzing how immersive VR affects learning outcomes and explaining the reasons behind the contradictory research about immersive VR’s effects. A survey was conducted in a laboratory setting in which the participants were asked to play an immersive VR application for learning. The results show that immersive VR affects learning outcomes through affective and cognitive paths. In the affective path, immersive VR features influence learning outcomes through the mediation of immersion and enjoyment. In the cognitive path, immersive VR features influence learning outcomes through the mediation of usefulness, control and active learning, and cognitive benefits. By providing a nuanced understanding of the effects of immersive VR on learning outcomes, this study contributes to the VR literature for learning.

Appendix: Measurement Items

Constructs	Items	Sources
Representational fidelity	1. The objects (e.g., the red blood cell) in the VR application seemed real	Self-developed based on [84]
	2. The change of images due to view change and object motion in the VR application seemed smooth
	3. My actions directly resulted in expected changes in the VR application
	4. The audio effect of the VR application sounded real
Immediacy of control	1. The ability to change the viewpoint in the VR application allowed me to learn better	[12]
	2. The ability to change the viewpoint in the VR application made learning more motivating and interesting
	3. The ability to manipulate the objects (e.g., hit, move, rotate) in the VR application made learning more motivating and interesting
	4. The ability to manipulate the objects in real time helped to enhance my understanding
Interactivity	1. I had the impression that I could be active in the virtual environment	[85]
	2. The objects in the VR application gave me the feeling that I could do something with them
	3. I felt that the objects in the VR application could almost be touched
	4. There were times during which I felt like I was directly interacting with the objects in the VR application
	5. I felt the objects in the VR application were aware of my presence
Aesthetic quality	1. The visual design of the VR application was attractive	[86]
	2. The VR application was aesthetically pleasing
	3. The VR application displayed a visually pleasant design
	4. The VR application appealed to my visual senses
	5. Overall, I found that the VR application was visually appealing
Usefulness	1. Using the VR application as a tool for learning increased my learning and academic performance	[12]
	2. Using the VR application enhanced the effectiveness of my learning
	3. The VR application allowed me to progress at my own pace
Immersion	1. I lost track of time while playing the VR application	[12, 82];
	2. I became very involved in the VR application forgetting about other things
	3. I was involved in the VR application to the extent that I lost track of time
Enjoyment	1. I found using the VR application enjoyable	[12]
	2. Using the VR application was pleasant
	3. I had fun using the VR application
Control and active learning	1. The VR application helped me to have a better overview of the content learned	[12]
	2. The VR application allowed me to be more responsive and active in the learning process
	3. The VR application allowed me to have more control over my own learning
	4. The VR application promoted self-paced learning
	5. The VR application helped to get me engaged in the learning activity
Cognitive benefits	1. The VR application made the comprehension easier	[18]
	2. The VR application made the memorization easier
	3. The VR application helped me to better apply what was learned
	4. The VR application helped me to better analyze the problems
	5. The VR application helped me to have a better overview of the content learned
Reflective thinking	1. The VR application enabled me to reflect on how I learned	[12]
	2. The VR application enabled me to link new knowledge with previous knowledge and experiences
	3. The VR application enabled me to become a better learner
	4. The VR application enabled me to reflect on my own understanding
Motivation	1. The VR application could enhance my learning interest	[5, 12, 27]
	2. The VR application could enhance my learning motivation
	3. The realism of the VR application motivated me to learn
	4. I was more interested to learn the topics
	5. I was interested and stimulated to learn more
Learning effectiveness	1. I learned a lot of biological information in the topics	[18]
	2. I gained a good understanding of the basic concepts of the materials
	3. I learned to identify the main and important issues of the topics
	4. The learning activities were meaningful
	5. What I learned, I could apply in real context