Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Toxic Leadership: Managing Its Poisonous Effects on Employees and Organizational Outcomes

  • Reference work entry
  • First Online:
The Palgrave Handbook of Workplace Well-Being

Abstract

This chapter gives an overview of the research on toxic leadership with regard to its definitions and the different ways in which toxic leadership has been dimensioned and measured. The chapter describes predictors of toxic leadership, poisonous effects of toxic leadership on employees, and organizational outcomes as well as a toxic leadership process. The author describes possible ways employees, HR personnel, and organizations may cope with and manage toxic leaders as well as the bright sides of toxic leadership with regard to its positive effects for individuals and organizations. Lastly, this chapter proposes future directions for researchers and practitioners.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aasland MS, Skogstad A, Notelaers G, Nielsen MB, Einarsen S (2010) The prevalence of destructive leadership behaviour. Br J Manag 21(2):438–452

    Google Scholar 

  • Aboyassin NA, Abood N (2013) The effect of ineffective leadership on individual and organizational performance in Jordanian institutions. Compet Rev 23(1):68–84

    Google Scholar 

  • Akca M (2017) The impact of toxic leadership on intention to leave of employees. Int J Econ Bus Manag Res 1(4):285–298

    Google Scholar 

  • Army Doctrine Publication (2012) Army leadership 6-22. Retrieved from https://fas.org/irp/doddir/army/adp6_22.pdf

  • Ashforth BE (1997) Petty tyranny in organizations: a preliminary examination of antecedents and consequences. Can J Adm Sci 14(2):126–140

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aubrey DW (2012) The effect of toxic leadership. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bandura A (1986) Social foundations of thought and action. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs

    Google Scholar 

  • Behery M, Al-Nasser AD, Jabeen F, Rawas E, Said A (2018) Toxic leadership and organizational citizenship behavior: a mediation effect of followers’ trust and commitment in the Middle East. Int J Bus Soc 19(3):793

    Google Scholar 

  • Beightel RS (2018) How a conducive environment and susceptible followers influence toxic leadership behaviors in the air force: an examination of the toxic triangle theory. Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson AFB

    Google Scholar 

  • Beum L (2015) Toxic leadership affects soldiers at all levels. Infantry, July-Sept, pp 44–49

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhandarker A, Rai S (2019) Toxic leadership: emotional distress and coping strategy. Int J Organ Theory Behav 22(1):65–78

    Google Scholar 

  • Black JA (2015) The lived experiences of the army officer’s wife to an army commander’s toxic leadership: a phenomenological study. Capella University. Proquest Dissertation Publishing. Alexandria, VA

    Google Scholar 

  • Bochner S, Hesketh B (1994) Power distance, individualism/collectivism, and job-related attitudes in a culturally diverse work group. J Cross Cult Psychol 25(2):233–257

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bourdoux D, Delabelle M (2013) Toxic leadership: an understanding on how a business environment is ‘contaminated’ by leaders. Linnaeus University, Diva Portal, Sweden. Retrieved from http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A626936&dswid=-7610

  • Box JE (2012) Toxic leadership in the military profession. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks

    Google Scholar 

  • Burke RJ (2016) Stress in policing: sources, consequences and interventions. Routledge, London

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Burns WA (2017) A descriptive literature review of harmful leadership styles: definitions, commonalities, measurements, negative impacts, and ways to improve these harmful leadership styles. Creighton J Interdiscip Leadersh 3(1):33–52

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carson MA, Shanock LR, Heggestad ED, Andrew AM, Pugh SD, Walter M (2012) The relationship between dysfunctional interpersonal tendencies, derailment potential behavior, and turnover. J Bus Psychol 27(3):291–304

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Çelebi N, Güner H, Yildiz V (2015) Toksik Liderlik Ölçeginin Gelistirilmesi∗/Developing toxic leadership scale. Bartin Üniversitesi Egitim Fakültesi Dergisi 4(1):249

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chan DK, Chow SY, Lam CB, Cheung SF (2008) Examining the job-related, psychological, and physical outcomes of workplace sexual harassment: a meta-analytic review. Psychol Women Q 32(4):362–376

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng G (2018) Mindfulness and the toxic triangle: reducing the negative impact of toxic leadership in organizations. Pepperdine University. ProQuest Dissertations (PQDT Open), Alexandria, VA

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper TD (2003) Sin, pride & self-acceptance: the problem of identity in theology & psychology. InterVarsity Press, Westmont

    Google Scholar 

  • Cortina LM, Magley VJ, Williams JH, Langhout RD (2001) Incivility in the workplace: incidence and impact. J Occup Health Psychol 6(1):64

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dagless J (2018) Toxic leadership in the military. In: The leadership hubris epidemic. Springer, Cham, pp 93–135

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Daniel TA (2017) Managing toxic emotions at work: HR’s unique role as the “organizational shock absorber”. Employ Relat Today 43(4):13–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis QL (2016) A comprehensive review of toxic leadership. Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB

    Google Scholar 

  • DeRue DS, Ashford SJ (2010) Who will lead and who will follow? A social process of leadership identity construction in organizations. Acad Manag Rev 35(4):627–647

    Google Scholar 

  • Dobbs JM, Do JJ (2019) The impact of perceived toxic leadership on cynicism in officer candidates. Armed Forces Soc 45(1):3–26

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elle SA (2012) Breaking the toxic leadership paradigm in the US Army. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks

    Google Scholar 

  • Fraher AL (2016) A toxic triangle of destructive leadership at Bristol Royal Infirmary: a study of organizational Munchausen syndrome by proxy. Leadership 12(1):34–52

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furnham A, Trickey G, Hyde G (2012) Bright aspects to dark side traits: dark side traits associated with work success. Pers Individ Differ 52(8):908–913

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gangel KO (2007) Surviving toxic leaders: how to work for flawed people in churches, schools, and Christian organizations. Wipf and Stock Publishers, La Vergne

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldman A (2009) Transforming toxic leaders. Stanford University Press, Palo Alto

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Gottfredson MR (2007) Self-control theory. In: The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New Jersey

    Google Scholar 

  • Green JE (2014) Toxic leadership in educational organizations. Educ Leadersh Rev 15(1):18–33

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris A, Jones M (2018) The dark side of leadership and management. School Leadership & Management. 38(5):475–477

    Google Scholar 

  • Higgs M (2009) The good, the bad and the ugly: leadership and narcissism. J Chang Manag 9(2):165–178

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede GH (1984) Culture’s consequences: international differences in work-related values, vol 5. Sage, Beverly Hills

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede (2011) Dimensionalizing cultures: the Hofstede model in context. Online Read Psychol Cult 2(1):8

    Google Scholar 

  • Hogan R (2017) Personality and the fate of organizations. Psychology Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Hogan R, Hogan J (2001) Assessing leadership: a view from the dark side. Int J Sel Assess 9(1–2):40–51

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hogan R, Kaiser RB (2005) What we know about leadership. Rev Gen Psychol 9(2):169–180

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson NS (2019) A phenomenological analysis of military personnel’s experiences of toxic leadership. Walden University, Scholar Works, Minneapolis. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations/5881/

  • Joynt S (2017) Exodus of clergy: the role of leadership in responding to the call. HTS Theol Stud 73(4):1

    Google Scholar 

  • Judge TA, Bono JE (2001) Relationship of core self-evaluations traits – self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability – with job satisfaction and job performance: a meta-analysis. J Appl Psychol 86(1):80

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kellerman, B. (2004). Bad leadership: What it is, how it happens, why it matters. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, J. D. (2016, July 6). 8 traits of toxic leadership to avoid. Psychology Today. Retrieved from www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/culture-shrink/201607/8-traits-toxic-leadership-avoid

  • Kurtulmuş BE (2019) The dark side of leadership. Springer International Publishing, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Kusy M, Holloway E (2009) Toxic workplace!: managing toxic personalities and their systems of power. Wiley, Hoboken

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus RS, Folkman S (1984) Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer Publishing Company, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindsay LCRD, Colonel L, Watola DJ, Lovelace J (2016) Why negative leadership matters: implications for leader development in the military. In D. Watola, & D. Woycheshin (Eds), Negative Leadership: International Perspectives(pp. 15-42). Canadian Defence Academy Press, Winnipeg

    Google Scholar 

  • Lipman-Blumen J (2005) Toxic leadership: when grand illusions masquerade as noble visions. Lead Lead 2005(36):29–36

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lipman-Blumen J (2006) The allure of toxic leaders: why we follow destructive bosses and corrupt politicians-and how we can survive them. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Lipman-Blumen J (2010) Toxic leadership: A conceptual framework In: Bournois F., Duval-Hamel J., Roussillon S., Scaringella JL. (eds) Handbook of Top Management Teams. Palgrave Macmillan, London  

    Google Scholar 

  • Lipman-Blumen J (2011) Toxic leadership: a rejoinder. Representation 47(3):331–342

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liță S (2018) Insights into the criterion validity of the toxic leadership scale: a Bayesian comparative analysis between good and poor managers. Psihologia Resurselor Umane 16(1):40–50

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu D, Liao H, Loi R (2012) The dark side of leadership: a three-level investigation of the cascading effect of abusive supervision on employee creativity. Acad Manag J 55(5):1187–1212

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lubit RH (2003) Coping with toxic managers, subordinates... and other difficult people: using emotional intelligence to survive and prosper. FT Press, Upper Saddle River

    Google Scholar 

  • Ludwig DC, Longenecker CO (1993) The Bathsheba syndrome: the ethical failure of successful leaders. J Bus Ethics 12(4):265–273

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Macklem K (2005) The toxic workplace. Maclean’s 118(5):34

    Google Scholar 

  • Malik MS, Sattar S, Younas S, Nawaz MK (2019) The workplace deviance perspective of employee responses to workplace bullying: the moderating effect of toxic leadership and mediating effect of emotional exhaustion. Rev Integr Bus Econ Res 8(1):33–50

    Google Scholar 

  • Matos K, O’Neill O, Lei X (2018) Toxic leadership and the masculinity contest culture: how “win or die” cultures breed abusive leadership. J Soc Issues 74(3):500–528

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mehta S, Maheshwari G (2014) Toxic leadership: tracing the destructive trail. Int J Manag 5(10):18–24

    Google Scholar 

  • Mifflin H (2000) The american heritage dictionary of the english language. Houghton Mifflin Company, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Milosevic I, Maric S, Loncar D (2019) Defeating the toxic boss: the nature of toxic leadership and the role of followers. J Leadersh Org Stud. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051819833374

  • Morris JA (2019) Understanding coping strategies and behaviors of employees affected by toxic leadership. Walden University, Scholar Works, Minneapolis. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations/6359/

  • Nevicka B, Baas M, Ten Velden FS (2016) The bright side of threatened narcissism: improved performance following ego threat. J Pers 84(6):809–823

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Osborn RN, Uhl-Bien M, Milosevic I (2014) The context and leadership. In D. V. Day (Ed.), Oxford library of psychology. The Oxford handbook of leadership and organizations (p. 589–612). Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Özer Ö, Ugurluoglu Ö, Kahraman G, Avci K (2017) A study on toxic leadership perceptions of healthcare workers. Glob Bus Manag Res 9(1):12

    Google Scholar 

  • Padilla A, Hogan R, Kaiser RB (2007) The toxic triangle: destructive leaders, susceptible followers, and conducive environments. Leadersh Q 18(3):176–194

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pathak M (2017) Decoding toxic leadership. Hum Cap 20(9):62–63

    Google Scholar 

  • Paunonen SV, Lönnqvist J-E, Verkasalo M, Leikas S, Nissinen V (2006) Narcissism and emergent leadership in military cadets. Leadersh Q 17(5):475–486

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pelletier KL (2010) Leader toxicity: an empirical investigation of toxic behavior and rhetoric. Leadership 6(4):373–389

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pelletier KL (2012) Perceptions of and reactions to leader toxicity: do leader–follower relationships and identification with victim matter? Leadersh Q 23(3):412–424

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Popa M, Rotarescu VS, Sulea C (2013) Toxic leadership scale: a Romanian adaptation and validation. Psychol Health 28:291–291

    Google Scholar 

  • Reed GE (2004) Toxic leadership. Mil Rev 84(4):67–71

    Google Scholar 

  • Reed GE (2015) Tarnished: toxic leadership in the US military. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Reed GE, Bullis RC (2009) The impact of destructive leadership on senior military officers and civilian employees. Armed Forces Soc 36(1):5–18

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross DB, Matteson R, Exposito J (2014) Servant leadership to toxic leadership: power of influence over power of control. Nova Southeastern University, NSU Works, Florida. Retrieved from https://nsuworks.nova.edu/fse_facpres/244/

  • Roter AB (2011) The lived experiences of registered nurses exposed to toxic leadership behaviors. Capella University, Minneapolis

    Google Scholar 

  • Saqib A, Arif M (2017) Employee silence as a mediator in the relationship between toxic leadership behavior and organizational performance. J Manag Sci 11:83

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt AA (2008) Development and validation of the toxic leadership scale. University of Maryland, College Park

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt AA (2014) An examination of toxic leadership, job outcomes, and the impact of military deployment. University of Maryland, Digital Repository at the University of Maryland, Maryland. Retrieved from: https://drum.lib.umd.edu/handle/1903/15250

  • Shaw (2003) Traumatic abuse in cults: a psychoanalytic perspective. Cultic Stud Rev 2:101–129

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw JB, Erickson A, Harvey M (2011) A method for measuring destructive leadership and identifying types of destructive leaders in organizations. Leadersh Q 22(4):575–590

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shufelt JW, Longenecker CO (2017) Practical lessons learned for dealing with toxic leaders and bad bosses. Military Review, 2, 2–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Simons S, Sauer P (2013) An exploration of the workplace bullying experience: coping strategies used by nurses. J Nurses Prof Dev 29(5):228–232

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singh N, Sengupta S, Dev S (2018) Toxic leadership: The most menacing form of leadership. In: dark sides of organizational behavior and leadership. IntechOpenRetrieved from: https://www.intechopen.com/books/dark-sides-of-organizational-behavior-and-leadership/toxic-leadership-the-most-menacing-form-of-leadership

  • Smith N, Fredricks-Lowman I (2019) Conflict in the workplace: a 10-year review of toxic leadership in higher education. Int J Leadersh Educ. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603124.2019.1591512

  • Starratt A, Grandy G (2010) Young workers’ experiences of abusive leadership. Leadersh Organ Dev J 31(2):136–158

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steele JP (2011) Antecedents and consequences of toxic leadership in the US Army: a two year review and recommended solutions. Center for Army Leadership, Fort Leavenworth

    Google Scholar 

  • Tamby A, Ahmad U, Norulkamar U (2018) Impact of leadership styles on psychological distress and job satisfaction among employees in Sabah. MANU: Jurnal Pusat Penataran Ilmu Dan Bahasa (PPIB), 169 -. Retrieved from https://jurcon.ums.edu.my/ojums/index.php/MANU/article/view/1316

  • Tavanti M (2011) Managing toxic leaders: dysfunctional patterns in organizational leadership and how to deal with them. Hum Resour Manag 2011:127–136

    Google Scholar 

  • Tepper BJ (2000) Consequences of abusive supervision. Acad Manag J 43(2):178–190

    Google Scholar 

  • Thoroughgood CN (2013) Follower susceptibility to destructive leaders: development and validation of conformer and colluder scales. PennState Electronic Thesis and Dissertations for Graduate School. Retrieved from https://etda.libraries.psu.edu/catalog/16869

  • Thoroughgood CN, Padilla A, Hunter ST, Tate BW (2012) The susceptible circle: a taxonomy of followers associated with destructive leadership. Leadersh Q 23(5):897–917

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thoroughgood CN, Sawyer KB, Padilla A, Lunsford L (2018) Destructive leadership: a critique of leader-centric perspectives and toward a more holistic definition. J Bus Ethics 151(3):627–649

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Treviño LK, Weaver GR, Reynolds SJ (2006) Behavioral ethics in organizations: a review. J Manag 32(6):951–990

    Google Scholar 

  • Truhon SA (2006) Toxic leadership. In D. Watola, & D. Woycheshin (Eds), Negative Leadership: International Perspectives (pp. 1–14). Canadian Defence Academy Press, Winnipeg

    Google Scholar 

  • Uhl-Bien M, Marion R, McKelvey B (2007) Complexity leadership theory: shifting leadership from the industrial age to the knowledge era. Leadersh Q 18(4):298–318

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Uhl-Bien M, Riggio RE, Lowe KB, Carsten MK (2014) Followership theory: a review and research agenda. Leadersh Q 25(1):83–104

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ulmer WF (2012) Toxic leadership: what are we talking about. Army Mag 62(6):47–52

    Google Scholar 

  • Uygur A, Öğretmenoğlu M (2018) The dark side and the bright side of narcissistic leadership: a critical review. Int J Econ Commer Manag VI(4):349–360

    Google Scholar 

  • Veldsman T (2016) How toxic leaders destroy people as well as organisations. The Conversation

    Google Scholar 

  • Vreja LO, Balan S, Bosca LC (2016) An evolutionary perspective on toxic leadership. Manag Econ Rev 1(2):217–228

    Google Scholar 

  • Walton M (2007) Leadership toxicity–an inevitable affliction of organisations. Organ People 14(1):19–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Webster V, Brough P, Daly K (2016) Fight, flight or freeze: common responses for follower coping with toxic leadership. Stress Health 32(4):346–354

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whicker ML (1996) Toxic leaders: when organizations go bad. Praeger Publishers, Santa Barbara, CA

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams DF (2005) Toxic leadership in the US Army. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson-Starks KY (2003) Toxic leadership. Transleadership Inc. Retrieved from: https://transleadership.com/wp-content/uploads/ToxicLeadership.pdf

  • Wimmer S (2017) The dysfunctions of toxic leadership. Retrieved from https://www.iris.xyz/research/the-dumbest-thing-you-can-do-with-your-money-in-2019

  • Yagil D, Ben-Zur H, Tamir I (2011) Do employees cope effectively with abusive supervision at work? An exploratory study. Int J Stress Manag 18(1):5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yapp R (2016) The six characteristics of toxic leaders. Leadership Forces. Retrieved from: https://www.leadershipforces.com/six-characteristics-toxic-leaders/

  • Yavaş A (2016) Sectoral differences in the perception of toxic leadership. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 229:267–276

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zwerdling D (2014) Army takes on its own toxic leaders. All things considered. Retrieved from: https://www.npr.org/2014/01/06/259422776/army-takes-on-its-own-toxic-leaders

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Healthcare Leadership Academy, Lagos, Nigeria

    Emem Laguda

Authors
  1. Emem Laguda
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Emem Laguda .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Woodbury University, Burbank, CA, USA

    Satinder K. Dhiman

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Laguda, E. (2021). Toxic Leadership: Managing Its Poisonous Effects on Employees and Organizational Outcomes. In: Dhiman, S.K. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Workplace Well-Being. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30025-8_71

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation