Abstract
Encystment is a common strategy adopted by coastal marine plankton species to avoid adverse conditions. Spiny cysts have been identified in marine sediments of more than 600 millions years ago, thus suggesting that this has been an original trait of metazoan life cycles. Protista, Chromista, and Metazoa share this trait which is not the result of a convergent evolution, but a plesiomorphy, probably dictated by low oxygen concentrations. During the evolution of life on the Earth, the morphology has been modified, and today some taxa show typical and recognizable patterns. The affirmation of parental cares (brood protection) is suspected to have provoked the disappearing of spiny covering of eggs and/or cysts. Cysts produced in the pelagos sink to the bottom sediments where their dormancy may extend for decades. In polar seas, cysts are suspected to be entrapped within sea ice and released with ice melting to refuel a new plankton community in the complex frame of the so-called resurrection ecology. Confined marine coastal areas accumulate cysts in sediments due to many drivers as (i) reduced water movement/hydrodynamics, (ii) concentration of cyst-producing species with high population densities, and (iii) absence and/or scarcity of possible cyst consumers in the benthos. The pelagic-benthic nexus, which affects both the sediments and the water column (and possibly sea ice), is still poorly understood. The presence of cysts in the life cycle is likely to have considerable consequences for the ecology of coastal plankton as well as the evolution and biogeography of species.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Albertsson J, Leonardsson K (2000) Impact of a burrowing-feeder, Monoporeia affinis, on viable zooplankton resting eggs in the northern Baltic Sea. Mar Biol 136:611–619
Alekseev VR (1990) Diapausa rakoobrazhik. Ekologo physiologicheskye aspekty. Nauka, Moscow. 143 pp. (in Russian)
Alekseev VR (2007) Diapause in crustaceans: peculiarities of induction. In: Alekseev VR et al (eds) Diapause in aquatic invertebrates. Springer, Berlin, pp 29–63
Anderson DM (1998) Physiology & bloom dynamics of toxic Alexandrium species, with emphasis on life cycle transitions. In: Anderson DM et al (eds) Physiological ecology of harmful algal blooms, NATO ASI Series G41, pp 29–48
Bailey SA, Duggan IC, van Overdijk CDA, Jenkins PT, MacIsaac HJ (2003) Viability of invertebrate diapausing eggs collected from residual ballast sediment. Limnol Oceanogr 48:1701–1710
Ban S (1992) Effects of temperature, photoperiod, and population density on induction of diapause egg production in Eurytemora affinis (Copepoda: Calanoida) in Lake Ohnuma, Okkaido, Japan. J Crustac Biol 12:361–367
Ban S (1994) Induction of diapause egg production in Eurytemora affinis by their own metabolites. Hydrobiologia 292(293):185–189
Barnes RSK, Hughes RN (1999) An introduction to marine ecology, 3rd edn. Blackwell Publ, Oxford
Baumgartner MF, Tarrant AM (2017) The physiology and ecology of diapause in marine copepods. Annu Rev Mar Sci 9:387–411
Belmonte G (1992) Diapause egg production in Acartia (Paracartia) latisetosa (Crustacea, Copepoda, Calanoida). Bollettino di Zoologia 59:363–366
Belmonte G (1997) Resting eggs in the life cycle of Acartia italica and A. adriatica (Copepoda, Calanoida, Acartiidae). Crustaceana 70:114–117
Belmonte G (1998a) The egg morphology of 7 Acartiidae species. A preliminary survey for the ootaxonomy of calanoids. J Mar Syst 15:35–39
Belmonte G (1998b) Pteracartia a new genus of Acartiidae (Calanoida, Diaptomoidea) for Acartia josephinae Crisafi, 1974. J Mar Syst 15:359–368
Belmonte G (2018) Calanoida (Crustacea: Copepoda) of the Italian fauna; a review. European Zoological Journal 85:274–290
Belmonte G, Pati AC (2007) Hatching rate and diapause duration in eggs of Paracartia latisetosa (Copepoda: Calanoida). J Plankton Res 29:139–147
Belmonte G, Potenza D (2001) Biogeography of the family Acartiidae (Calanoida) in the Ponto-Mediterranean province. Hydrobiologia 453(454):171–176
Belmonte G, Puce M (1994) Morphological aspects of subitaneous and resting eggs from Acartia josephinae (Calanoida). Hydrobiologia 292(293):131–135
Belmonte G, Rossi V (1998) Resurrection and time travelling: diapause in crustaceans (and others). Trends in Ecology and Evolution 13:4–5
Belmonte G, Rubino F (2019) Resting cysts from coastal marine plankton. Oceanogr Mar Biol Annu Rev 57. (in press)
Belmonte G, Mazzocchi MG, Prusova IY, Shadrin NV (1994) Acartia tonsa a species new for the Black Sea fauna. Hydrobiologia 292(293):9–15
Belmonte G, Castello P, Piccinni MR, Quarta S, Rubino F, Geraci S, Boero F (1995) Resting stages in marine sediments off the Italian coast. In: Elefteriou A et al (eds) Biology and ecology of shallow coastal waters. Olsen & Olsen Publ, Fredensborg, pp 53–58
Belmonte G, Miglietta A, Rubino F, Boero F (1997) Morphological convergence of resting stages produced by planktonic organisms: a review. Hydrobiologia 335:159–165
Boero F (1994) Fluctuations and variations in coastal marine environments. Mar Biol 15:3–25
Boero F, Belmonte G, Fanelli G, Piraino S, Rubino F (1996) The continuity of living matter and the discontinuities of its constituents: do plankton and benthos really exist? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 11:177–180
Boero F, Belmonte G, Bussotti S, Fanelli G, Fraschetti S, Giangrande A, Gravili C, Guidetti P, Pati AC, Piraino S, Rubino F, Saracino OD, Schmich J, Terlizzi A, Geraci S (2004) From biodiversity and ecosystem functioning to the roots of ecological complexity. Ecol Complex 1:101–109
Bohonack AJ, Holland MD, Santer B, Zeller M, Kearns CM, Hairston NG Jr (2006) The population genetic consequences of diapause in Eudiaptomus copepods. Arch Hydrobiol 167:183–202
Braiko VD (1966) Biology of the winter eggs of Penilia avirostris. Doklady Biological Sciences (English traduction of Doklady Academic Nauk SSSR) 170:681–683
Brierley AS, Thomas DN (2002) Ecology of southern ocean pack ice. Adv Mar Biol 43:173–276
Brylinski JM (1981) Reports on the presence of Acartia tonsa Dana (Copepoda) in the area of Dunkirk and its geographical distribution in Europe. J Plankton Res 3:255–261
Buck KR, Bolt PA, Bentham W, Garrison DL (1992) A dinoflagellate cyst from the Antarctic Sea ice. J Phycol 28:15–18
Càceres CE, Tessier AJ (2003) How long to rest: the ecology of optimal dormancy and environmental constraint. Ecology 84:1189–1198
Carlton JT, Geller JB (1993) Ecological roulette: the global transport of non indigenous marine organisms. Science 261:78–82
Chesson PL, Warner RR (1981) Environmental variabilità promotes coexistence in lottery competitive systems. Am Nat 117:923–943
Clegg JS (1997) Embryos of Artemia franciscana survive for years of continuous anoxia: the case for complete metabolic rate depression. J Exp Biol 200:467–475
Cohen D (1966) Optimizing reproduction in a randomly varying environment. J Theor Biol 12:119–129
Cohen PA, Knoll AH, Kodner RB (2009) Large spinose microfossils in Ediacaran rocks as resting stages of early animals. Proc Natl Acad Sci 106:6519–6524
Dahms H-U (1995) Dormancy in the Copepoda ? An overview. Hydrobiologia 306(3):199–211
Dahms H-U, Li X, Zhang G, Quian P-Y (2006) Resting stages of Tortanus forcipatus (Crustacea, Calanoida) in sediments of Victoria harbour, Hong Kong. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Sciences 67:562–568
Drillet G, Jeppesen PM, Højgaard JK, Jørgensen NOG, Hansen BW (2008) Strain specific vital rates in four Acartia tonsa cultures II: life history traits and biochemical contents of eggs and adults. Aquaculture 279:47–54
Drillet G, Hay S, Hansen BW, O’Neill FG (2014) Effects of demersal otter trawls on the re-suspension of copepod resting eggs and its potential effects on recruitment. J Fisheries and Livestock Production 2. https://doi.org/10.4172/2332-2608.1000114
Dumont HJ, Nandini S, Sarma SSS (2002) Cyst ornamentation in aquatic invertebrates. A defense against predation Hydrobiologia 486:161–167
Ellner SP, Hairston NG Jr, Kearns CM, Babai D (1999) The roles of fluctuating selection and long term diapause in microevolution of diapause timing in a fresh water copepod. Evolution 53:111–122
Engel M (2005) Calanoid copepod resting eggs – a safeguard against adverse environmental conditions in the German bight and the Kara Sea? Berichte zur Polarforshung und Meeresforshung 508:1–108
Farabegoli A, Ferrari I, Manzoni C, Pugnetti A (1989) Prima segnalazione nel Mare Adriatico del copepode calanoide Acartia tonsa. Nova Thalassia 10(suppl.1):207–208
Figuerola J, Green AJ (2002) Dispersal of aquatic organisms by waterbirds; a review of past research and priorities for future studies. Freshw Biol 47:483–494
Foissner W (2006) Biogeography and dispersal of micro-organisms: a review emphasizing protists. Acta Protozool 45:111–136
Foissner W, Müller H, Agatha S (2007) A comparative fine structural and phylogenetic analysis of resting cysts in oligotrich and hypotrich Spirotrichea (Ciliophora). Eur J Protistol 43:295–314
Friedrich C, De Smet WH (2000) The rotifer fauna of Arctic Sea ice from the Barents Sea, Laptev Sea, and Greenland Sea. Hydrobiologia 432:73–89
Gaines S, Roughgarden J (1985) Larval settlment rate: a leading determinant of structure in an ecological community of the marine intertidal zone. Proc Natl Acad Sci 83:3707–3711
Galil BS, Hulsemann N (1997) Protist transport via ballast water – biological classification of ballast tanks by food web interactions. Eur J Protistol 33:244–253
Garrison DL, Buck KR (1989) The biota of Antarctic pack ice in the Weddell Sea and Antarctic peninsula regions. Polar Biol 10:211–219
Gaudy R, Viñas MD (1985) Premiere signalization en Méditerranée du copépode pélagique Acartia tonsa. Rapports de la Commission Internationale pour l’Exploration Scientifique de la Mer Méditerranée 29:227–229
Giangrande A, Geraci S, Belmonte G (1994) Life-cycle and life-history diversity in marine invertebrates and the implications in community dynamics. Oceanogr Mar Biol Annu Rev 32:305–333
Giangrande A, Montresor M, Cavallo A, Licciano M (2002) Influence of Naineris laevigata (Polychaeta: Orbiniidae) on vertical grain size distribution, and dinoflagellate resting stages in the sediment. J Sea Res 47:97–108
Giannakourou A, Orlova TY, Assimakopoulou G, Pagou K (2005) Dinoflagellate cysts in recent marine sediments from Thermaikos gulf, Greece: effects of resuspending events on vertical cyst distribution. Cont Shelf Res 25:2585–2596
Gilbert JJ (1974) Dormancy in rotifers. Trans Am Microsc Soc 93:490–513
Gilbert JJ (1992) Rotifera. In: Adiyodi KG, Adiyodi RG (eds) Reproductive biology of invertebrates, Sexual differentiation and behaviour, vol V. Oxford/IBH Publishing Co, New Delhi, pp 115–136
Gilbert JJ (2004) Population density, sexual reproduction, and diapause in monogonont rotifers: new data for Brachionus and a review. J Limnol 63:32–36
Gilbert JJ (2007) Timing of diapause in monogonont rotifers. In: Alekseev VR et al (eds) Diapause in aquatic invertebrates. Theory and human use. Springer, Berlin, pp 11–27
Glippa O, Denis L, Lesourd S, Souissi S (2014) Seasonal fluctuations of the copepod resting egg bank in the middle seine estuary, France: impact on the nauplii recruitment. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 142:60–67
Gradinger R (1999) Vertical fine structure of the biomass and composition of algal communities in Arctic pack ice. Mar Biol 133:745–754
Grice GD, Marcus NH (1981) Dormant eggs of marine copepods. Occeanogr Mar Biol Annu Rev 19:125–140
Guelorget O, Perthuisot JP (1992) Paralic ecosystems - biological organization and functionning. Vie Milieu 42:215–251
Guerrero F, Rodrigues V (1998) Existence and significance of Acartia grani resting eggs (Copepoda: Calanoida) in sediments of a coastal station in the Alboran Sea (SE Spain). J Plankton Res 20:305–314
Gyllström M, Hansson L-A (2004) Dormancy in freshwater zooplankton: induction, termination and the importance of benthicpelagic coupling. Aquat Sci 66:274–295
Hairston NG Jr (1996) Zooplankton egg banks as biotic reservoirs in changing environments. Limnol Oceanogr 41:1087–1092
Hairston NG Jr, De Stasio BT Jr (1988) Rate of evolution slowed by a dormant propagule pool. Nature 336:239–242
Hairston NG Jr, Fox JA (2010) Egg banks. In: Likens GE (ed) Plankton of inland waters. Elsevier, San Diego, pp 247–254
Hairston NG Jr, van Brunt RA, Kearns CN, Engstrom DR (1995) Age and survivorship of diapausing eggs in a sediment egg bank. Ecology 76:1706–1711
Hansen BW, Drillet G, Kristensen RM, Sørensen TF, Tøttrup MT (2010) Production, hatching success and surface ornamentation of eggs of calanoid copepods during a winter at 57°N. Mar Biol 157:59–68
Heikkila M, Pospelova V, Forest A, Stern GA, Fortier L, Macdonald RW (2016) Dinoflagellate cyst production over an annual cycle in seasonally ice-covered Hudson Bay. Mar Micropaleontol 125:1–24
Horner R (1985) Sea ice biota. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Horner R, Ackley SF, Dieckmann GS, Guiliksen B, Hoshia T, Legendre L, Melnikov IA, Reeburgh WS, Spindler M, Sullivan CW (1992) Ecology of sea ice biota. 1. Habitat, terminology, and methodology. Polar Biol 12:417–427
Hutchinson GE (1961) The paradox of the plankton. Am Nat 95:137–145
Ianora A (1998) Copepod life history traits in subtemperate regions. J Mar Syst 15:337–349
Ianora A, Santella L (1991) Diapause embryos in the neustonic copepod Anomalocera patersoni. Mar Biol 108:387–394
Ikavalko J (2001) On the presence of some selected Heterokontophyta (Chrisophyceae, Dictyochophyceae, Bicocoecida) and cysts (“archaeomonads”) from sea ice – a synopsis. Nova Hedwigia 122:41–54
Ikavalko J, Thomsen HA (1997) The Baltic Sea ice biota (march 1994): a study of the protistan community. Eur J Protistol 33:229–243
Ikavalko, J., Werner, I., Roine, T., Karell, K., Granskog, M. & Ehn, J. 2004. Sea ice biota in the northern Baltic Sea in February and April 2002. Proceedings of the 17th International IAHR Symposium on Ice. Saint Petersburg, Russia, 21–25 June 2004, pp 18–23
Jiang X, Wang G, Li S (2004) Age, distribution and abundance of viable resting eggs of Acartia pacifica (Copepoda: Calanoida) in Xiamen Bay, China. J Exp Biol Ecol 312:89–100
Kaiser MJ, Attrill MJ, Jennings S, Thomas DN, Barnes DKA, Brierley AS, Hidding JG, Kaartokallio H, Polunin NVC, Raffaelli DG (2005) Marine ecology. In: Processes, systems, and impacts. Press, Oxford University
Kamiyama T, Itakura S, Nagasaki K (1995) Effects of irradiance on excystment of tintinnids from marine sediments. J Oceanogr 51:615–618
Kasahara S, Uye S, Onbè T (1974) Calanoid copepods eggs in sea bottom-muds. Mar Biol 26:167–171
Kerfoot WC, Weider LJ (2004) Experimental paleoecology (resurrection ecology): chasig Van Valen’s red queen hypothesis. Limnol Oceanogr 49:1300–1316
Kim Y-O, Suzuki T, Taniguchi A (2002) A new species in the genus Cyrtostrombidium (Ciliophora, Oligotrichia, Oligotrichida): its morphology, seasonal cycle and resting stage. J Eukaryot Microbiol 49:338–343
Kokinos JP, Anderson DM (1995) Morphological development of resting cysts in cultures of the marine dinoflagellate Lingulodinium polyedrum (= L. machaerophorum). Palynology 19:143–166
Komazawa H, Endo Y (2002) Experimental studies on hatching conditions of the resting eggs of marine cladocerans and their seasonal variation in Onagawa Bay. Tohoku J Agri Res 52:57–85
Kremp A, Shull DH, Anderson DM (2003) Effects of deposit feeder gut passage and fecal pellet encapsulation on germination of dinoflagellate resting cysts. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 263:65–73
Kremp A, Rengefors K, Montresor M (2009) Species specific encystment patterns in three Baltic cold-water dinoflagellates: the role of multiple cues in resting cyst formation. Limnol Oceanogr 54:1125–1138
Kuwata A, Tsuda A (2005) Selection and viability after ingestion of vegetative cells, resting spores and resting cells of the marine diatom, Chaetoceros pseudocurvisetus, by two copepods. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 322:143–151
Lakkis S, Zeidane R (1990) Associations congeneriques d’Acartia (Copepoda, Calanoida) dans les eaux cotieres Libanaises : Calcul des indices d’ « Overlap » et de « Niche hypervolume ». Rapport de la Commission Internationale pour l’Exploration Scientifique de la Mer Méditerranée 32:222–223
Lennon JT, Jones SE (2011) Microbial seed banks: the ecological and evolutionary implications of dormancy. Nat Rev Microbiol 9:119–130
Leppäkoski E, Olenin S (2000) Non-native species and rates of spread: lessons from the brackish Baltic Sea. Biol Invasions 2:151–163
Levington JS (2001) Marine biology: function, biodiversity, ecology, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, New York
Lewin R (1986) Supply-side ecology. Science 234:25–27
Lindley IA (1992) Resistant eggs of Centropagoidea (Copepoda: Calanoida): a possible preadaptation to colonization of inland waters. J Crustac Biol 12:368–371
Lutz RV, Marcus NH, Chanton JP (1992) Effects of low oxygen concentrations on the hatching and viability of eggs of marine calanoid copepods. Mar Biol 114:241–247
Madhupratap M, Nehring S, Lenz J (1996) Resting eggs of zooplankton (Copepoda and Cladocera) from the Kiel Bay and adjacent waters (southwestern Baltic). Mar Biol 125:77–87
Mansingh A (1971) Physiological classification of dormancies in insects. Can Entomol 103:983–1009
Marcus NH (1979) On the population biology and nature of diapause of Labidocera aestiva (Copepoda, Calanoida). Biol Bull 157:297–305
Marcus NH (1984) Recruitment of copepod nauplii into the plankton: importance of diapause eggs and benthic processes. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 15:47–54
Marcus NH (1987) Differences in the duration of egg diapause in Labidocera aestiva (Copepoda, Calanoida) from the woods hole, Massachussetts, region. Biol Bull 163:169–177
Marcus NH (1990) Calanoid copepod, cladoceran, and rotifer eggs in sea-bottom sediments of northern Californian coastal waters: identification, occurrence and hatching. Mar Biol 105:413–418
Marcus NH, Boero F (1998) Production and plankton community dynamics in coastal aquatic systems: the importance of benthic pelagic coupling in the forgotten role of life cycles. Limnol Oceanogr 43:763–768
Marcus NH, Lutz R, Burnett W, Cable P (1994) Age, viability and vertical distribution of zooplankton resting eggs from an anoxic basin: evidence of an egg bank. Limnol Oceanogr 39:154–158
Mauchline J (1998) The biology of calanoid copepods. Adv Mar Biol 33:1–710
McMinn A, Bolch CJS, Hallegraeff G (1992) Cobricopshaeridium Harland & Sarjeant : dinoflagellate cyst or copepod egg ? Mircopaleontology 38:315–316
Meiers K, Feeling J, Graskog M, Spindler M (2002) Abundance, biomass and composition of biota in Baltic Sea ice and underlying water (march 2000). Polar Biol 25:761–770
Mertens KN, Dale B, Ellegaard M, Jansson I-M, Godhe A, Kremp A, Louwye S (2011) Process length variation in cysts of the dinoflagellate Protoceratium reticulatum, from surface sediments of the Baltic–Kattegat–Skagerrak estuarine system: a regional salinity proxy. Boreas 40:242–255
Meunier A (1910) Microplankton des Mers de Barents et de Kara. In: Duc D’Orleans: Campagne Arctique de 1907. C. Bulens, Bruxelles
Meysman FJR, Middelburg JJ, Heip CHR (2006) Bioturbation: a fresh look at Darwin’s last idea. Trends Ecol Evol 21:688–695
Miyashita LK, Gaeta SA, Lopez RM (2011) Life cycle and reproductive traits of marine podonids (Cladocera, Onychopoda) in a coastal subtropical area. J Plankton Res 33:779–792
Modig H, Òlafsson E (2001) Survival and bioturbation of the amphipod Monoporeia affinis in sulphide rich sediments. Mar Biol 138:87–92
Montresor M, Nuzzo L, Mazzocchi M (2003) Viability of dinoflagellate cysts after the passage through the copepod gut. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 287:209–221
Mugrabe G, Barros S, Marazzo A, Valentin JL (2007) Hatching rates of resting eggs of Cladocera (Crustacea; Branchiopoda) at a tropical bay, Brazil. Braz J Biol 67:527–530
Mura G (1986) SEM morphological survey on the egg shell in the Italian anostracans (Crustacea, Branchiopoda). Hydrobiologia 134:273–286
Odum EP (1971) Fundamentals of ecology. Saunders Co., Philadelphia
Onbé T (1974) Studies on the ecology of marine cladocerans. J Faculty of Fishery and Animal Husbandry, Hiroshima University 13:83–179
Onbé T (1985) Seasonal fluctuations in the abundance of populations of marine cladocerans and their resting eggs in the Inland Sea of Japan. Mar Biol 87:83–88
Onbé T (1991) Some aspects of the biology of resting eggs of marine cladocerans. In: Wenner A, Kuris A (eds) Crustacean egg production, Crustacean issues 7. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 41–45
Onoué Y, Toda T, Ban S (2004) Morphological features and hatching patterns of eggs in Acartia steueri (Crustacea, Copepoda) from Sagami Bay, Japan. Hydrobiologia 511:17–24
Pati AC, Belmonte G (2003) Disinfection efficacy on cysts viability of Artemia franciscana (Crustacea), Hexarthra fennica (Rotifera), and Fabrea Salina (Ciliophora). Mar Biol 142:895–904
Persson A (2000) Possible predation of cyst - a gap in the knowledge of dinoflagellate ecology? J Plankton Res 22:803–809
Persson A, Rosenberg R (2003) Grazing on marine dinoflagellate cysts by benthic deposit feeding animals. Harmful Algae 2:43–50
Philippi T, Sen J (1989) Hedging one’s evolutionary bets, revisited. Trends Ecol Evol 4:41–44
Piscia R, Tabozzi S, Bettinetti R, Nevalainen L, Manca MM (2016) Unexpected increases in rotifer resting egg abundances during the period of contamination of Lake Orta. J Limnol 75. https://doi.org/10.4081/jlimnol.2016.1300
Posi ME, BelmoParnte G (2011) Ritmi di produzione di uova di diapausa in Paracartia latisetosa (Copepoda, Calanoida). Thalassia Salentina 33:83–94
Rathaille AN, Raine R (2011) Seasonality in the excystment of Alexandrium minutum and Alexandrium tamarense in Irish coastal waters. Harmful Algae 10:629–635
Ratkova TN, Wassmann P (2005) Sea ice algae in the white and Barents seas: composition and origin. Polar Res 24:1–16
Redden AM, Daborn GR (1991) Viability of subitaneous copepod eggs following fish predation on egg-carrying calanoids. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 77:307–310
Reid PC, John AWG (1978) Tintinnid cysts. J Mar Biol Assoc U K 58:551–557
Reid PC, John AWG (1983) Resting cysts in the ciliate class Polyhymenophorea: phylogenetic implications. J Protozool 30:710–712
Remy P (1927) Note sur un copepode de l’eau saumatre du canal de Caen a la mer, Acartia tonsa Dana. Ann Biol Lacustre 15:169–186
Reznick DN (2011) The “origin” then and now: an interpretive guide to the “origin of species”. University Press, Princeton
Ribeiro S, Berge T, Lundholm N, Andersen TJ, Abrantes F, Ellegaard M (2011) Phytoplankton growth after a century of dormancy illuminates past resilience to catastrophic darkness. Nat Commun 2:311–317
Ricci C (2001) Dormancy patterns in rotifers. Hydrobiologia 446(447):1–11
Ricci C, Fontaneto D (2009) The importance of being a bdelloid. Ecological and evolutionary consequences of dormancy. Ital J Zoo 76:240–249
Rodrigues V, Vives F (1984) Copepodes de las aguas portuarias de Malaga. Investig Pesq 48:235–254
Rozanska M, Poulin M, Gosselin M (2008) Protist entrapment in newly formed sea ice in the coastal Arctic Ocean. J Mar Syst 74:887–901
Rubino, F. & Belmonte, G. 2019. A new cyst morphotype from recent sediments of the mar piccolo of Taranto (southern Italy, Ionian Sea).. Progress in Aqua Farming and Marine Biology. (in press)
Rubino F, Moscatello S, Belmonte M, Ingrosso G, Belmonte G (2013) Plankton resting stages in the marine sediments of the bay of Vlore (Albania). Intern J Ecol, 2013, n.ID 101682
Rubino F, Cibic T, Belmonte M, Rogelja M (2016) Microbenthic community structure and trophic status of sediments in the mar piccolo of Taranto (Mediterranean, Ionian Sea). Environ Sci Pollut Res 23:12624–12644
Ruiz GM, Carlton JT, Grosholtz ED, Hines AH (1997) Global invasions of marine and estuarine habitats by non-indigenous species: mechanisms, extent, and consequences. Am Zool 37:621–632
Ruiz GM, Rawlings TK, Dobbs FC, Drake LA, Mullady T, Huq A, Colwell RR (2000) Global spread of microorganisms by ships Ballast water discharged from vessels harbours. A cocktail of potential pathogens. Nature 408:49–50
Sacchi CF (1985) Le sel de La Palice: réflexions sur le paralin méditerranéen. Memorie di Biologia Marina ed Oceanografia 15:71–89
Santella L, Ianora A (1990) Subitaneous and diapause eggs in Mediterranean populations of Pontella mediterranea (Copepoda: Calanoida): a morphological study. Mar Biol 104:83–90
Santella L, Ianora A (1992) Fertilization envelope in diapause eggs of Pontella mediterranea (Crustacea, Copepoda). Mol Reprod Dev 33:463–469
Sazhina LI (1968) O zhimuyushchik yaitzak morskik Calanoida. Zool Zhurnal 47:1554–1556. (in Russian)
Sazhina LI (1987) Rashmioshenie, rost, produkziya morskik veslonogik rakoobrashiyk. Naukova Dumka, Kyev. (in Russian)
Schnack-Schiel SB, Dieckmann GS, Gradinger R, Melnikov IA, Spindler M, Thomas DN (2001) Meiofauna in sea ice of the Weddel Sea (Antarctica). Polar Biol 24:724–728
Seger J, Brockmann HJ (1987) What is bet-hedging? Oxford Survey of Evolutionary Biology 14:357–367
Sichlau MH, Hansen JLS, Andersen TJ, Hansen BW (2011) Distribution and mortality of diapause eggs from calanoid copepods in relation to sedimentation regimes. Mar Biol 158:665–676
Siokou-Frangou I, Zervoudaki S, Kambouroglou V, Belmonte G (2005) Distribution of mesozooplankton resting eggs in seabottom sediments of Thermaikos gulf (NW Aegean Sea, Greece) and possible effects of sediment resuspension. Cont Shelf Res 25:2597–2608
Smirnov SS (1935) Über das Auftreten von Acartia tonsa Dana (Copepoda) in Finnischen Meerbusen. Proc Natl Acad Sci URSS 3(5):237–240
Stabili L, Miglietta AM, Belmonte G (1999) Lysozyme-like and trypsin like activities in the cyst of Artemia franciscana Kellog 1906. Is there a passive immunity in a resting stage? J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 237:291–303
Tarazona E, García-Roger EM, Carmona MJ (2017) Experimental evolution of bet hedging in rotifer diapause traits as a response to environmental unpredictability. Oikos 126:1162–1172
Templeton AR, Levin DA (1979) Evolutionary consequences of seed pools. Am Nat 114:232–249
Thomas DN, Dieckmann GS (2002) Antarctic Sea ice – a habitat for extremophiles. Science 295:641–644
Tunnacliffe A, Lapinski J, McGee B (2005) A putative LEA protein, but no trehalose, is present in anhydrobiotic bdelloid rotifers. Hydrobiologia 546:315–321
Underwood AJ, Fairweather PG (1989) Supply side ecology and benthic marine assemblages. Trends Ecol Evol 4(1):16–20
Uye S-I (1985) Resting egg production as a life-cycle strategy of marine planktonic copepods. Bull Mar Sci 37:440–449
Valiela I (1995) Marine Ecological Processes, 2nd edn. Springer Publishing + Business Media, New York
Viitasalo S (2007) Effects of bioturbation by three macrozoobenthic species and predation by necto-benthic mysids on cladoceran benthic eggs. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 336:131–140
Viitasalo M, Katajisto T (1994) Mesozooplankton resting eggs in the Baltic Sea: identification and vertical distribution in laminated and mixed sediments. Mar Biol 120:455–465
Viitasalo S, Viitasalo M (2004) Predation by the mysid shrimps Mysis mixta and M. relicta on benthic eggs of Bosmina longispina maritima (Cladocera) in the northern Baltic Sea. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 281:155–163
Wang G, Jiang X, Wu L, Li S (2005) Differences in the density, sinking rate and biochemical composition of Centropages tenuiremis (Copepoda: Calanoida) subitaneous and diapause eggs. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 288:165–171
Werner I, Ikavalko J, Schünemann H (2007) Sea-ice algae in Arctic pack ice during late winter. Polar Biol 30:1493–1504
Williams-Howze J (1997) Dormancy in the free-living copepod orders Cyclopoida, Calanoida, and Harpacticoida. Oceanogr Mar Biol Annu Rev 35:257–321
Wonham MJ, Bailey SA, MacIsaac HJ, Lewis MA (2005) Modelling the invasion risk of diapausing organisms transported in ballast sediments. Can J Fish Aqua Sci 62:2386–2398
Zaitsev Y, Ozturk B (eds) (2001) Exotic species in the Aegean, Marmara, black, Azov and Caspian seas. Istanbul, Turkish Marine Research Foundation
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Belmonte, G., Rubino, F. (2019). Cysts and Resting Eggs from Marine Zooplankton: Dimension of the Phenomenon, Physiology of Rest, and Ecological and Biogeographic Implications. In: Alekseev, V., Pinel-Alloul, B. (eds) Dormancy in Aquatic Organisms. Theory, Human Use and Modeling. Monographiae Biologicae, vol 92. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21213-1_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21213-1_5
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-21212-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-21213-1
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)