Abstract
In this chapter, we first present characteristics of carrots that will affect gene flow and discuss dispersal via pollen by insect pollinators and via seeds by wind and animals. Although carrot is often referred to as a biennial, we introduce the various life history strategies observed in wild carrot populations as these can impact population growth and the range expansion of wild carrots over the landscape. We then review the studies of gene flow between crops, between crop and wild carrot and among wild carrot populations, concentrating on studies that used molecular markers. The consequences of these different types of gene flow (among cultivars, between crop and wild, and among wild) are then discussed. A major goal of biotechnology risk assessment for crops is to improve predictions of the fate of escaped genes either to other crop fields or to wild populations. We suggest as a priority for future studies to incorporate population dynamics with population genetics when modeling the fate of introduced genes. Improving our understanding of the factors that affect the spread of escaped genes will lead to the design of better management strategies to contain and limit their spread.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Ahmad M, Aslam M (2002) Pollinators visiting carrot (Daucus carota L.) seed crop. J Res (Sci) 13:31–35
Alessandro MS, Galmarini CR (2007) Inheritance of vernalization requirement in carrot. J Am Soc Hort Sci 132:525–529
Alessandro MS, Galmarini CR, Iorizzo M, Simon PW (2013) Molecular mapping of vernalization requirement and fertility restoration genes in carrot. Theor Appl Genet 126:415–423
Baranski R, Maksylewicz-Kaul A, Nothnagel T, Cavagnaro PF, Simon PW, Grzebelus D (2012) Genetic diversity of carrot (Daucus carota L.) cultivars revealed by analysis of SSR loci. Genet Resour Crop Evol 59(2):163–170
Beerli P (2006) Comparison of Bayesian and maximum-likelihood inference of population genetic parameters. Bioinformatics 22:341–345
Beerli P, Felsenstein J (1999) Maximum likelihood estimation of migration rates and effective population numbers in two populations. Genetics 152:763–773
Bilang R, Potrykus I (1998) Containing excitement over transplastomic plants. Nat Biotechnol 16:333–334
Birky CW Jr (2001) The inheritance of genes in mitochondria and chloroplasts: laws, mechanisms, and models. Annu Rev Genet 35:125–148
Blanchard JL, Lynch M (2000) Organellar genes—why do they end up in the nucleus? Trends Genet 16:315–320
Bohart GE, Nye WP (1960) Insect pollinators of carrots in Utah. Utah Aer Res Bull 419:16p
Bradeen JM, Bach IC, Briard M, Le Clerc V, Grzebelus D, Senalik DA, Simon PW (2002) Molecular diversity analysis of cultivated carrot (Daucus carota L.) and wild Daucus populations reveals a genetically nonstructured composition. J Am Soc Hort Sci 127(3):383–391
Brunet J, Larson-Rabin Z, Stewart CM (2012) The distribution of genetic diversity within and among populations of the Rocky Mountain columbine: the impact of gene flow, pollinators and mating system. Int J Plant Sci 173:484–494
Burczyk J, Adams WT, Moran GF, Griffin AR (2002) Complex patterns of mating revealed in a Eucalyptus regnans seed orchard using allozyme markers and the neighbourhood model. Mol Ecol 11(11):2379–2391
Burke JM (2004) When good plants go bad…. Evolution 58:1637–1638
Cavagnaro PF, Chung SM, Manin S, Yildiz M, Ali A, Alessandro MS, Iorizzo M, Senalik DA, Simon PW (2011) Microsatellite isolation and marker development in carrot—genomic distribution, linkage mapping, genetic diversity analysis and marker transferability across Apiaceae. BMC Genom 12(1):386
Chapman MA, Burke JM (2006) Letting the gene out of the bottle: the population genetics of GM crops. New Phytol 170:429–443
Corriveau JL, Coleman AW (1988) Rapid screening method to detect potential biparental inheritance of plastid DNA and results for over 200 angiosperm species. Am J Bot 75:1443–1458
Craig W, Tepfer M, Degrassil G, Ripandelli D (2008) An overview of general features of risk assessments of genetically modified crops. Euphytica 164:853–880
Daniell H, Edwards KJ (2011) Chloroplast biotechnololgy. Plant Biotechnol J 9:525–526
Daniell H, Datta R, Varma S, Gray S (1998) Containment of herbicide resistance through genetic engineering of the chloroplast genome. Nat Biotechnol 16:345–348
Davidson MM, Butler RC, Howlett BG (2010) Apis mellifera and Megachile rotundata: a comparison of behaviour and seed yield in a hybrid carrot seed crop. New Zeal J Crop Hort Sci 38:113–117
de Jong TC, Grebenstein C, Tamis WLM (2016) Demography and life history of Daucus carota L. populations in the Netherlands. Flora 224:154–158
Ellis JR, Bentley KE, McCauley DE (2008) Detection of rare paternal leakage in controlled crosses of the endangered sunflower Helianthus verticillatus. Heredity 100:574–580
Ellstrand NC (2003) Current knowledge of gene flow in plants: implications for transgene flow. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 358:1163–1170
Ellstrand NC, Meirmans P, Rong J, Bartsch D, Ghosh A, De Jong TJ, Haccou P, Lu BR, Snow AA, Neal Stewart C Jr, Strasburg JL (2013) Introgression of crop alleles into wild or weedy populations. Ann Rev Ecol Evol Syst 44:325–345
Ghosh A (2012) Calculating hazard rates of introgression with branching processes. Doctoral thesis, Leiden University, Leiden
Grebenstein C, Kos SP, de Jong TJ, Tamis WLM, de Snoo GR (2013) Morphological markers for the detection of introgression from cultivated into wild carrot (Daucus carota L.) reveal dominant domestication traits. Plant Biol 15:531–540
Greene SL, Kesoju SR, Martin RC, Kramer M (2015) Occurrence of transgenic feral alfalfa (Medicago sativa subsp. sativa L.) in alfalfa seed production areas in the United States. PLoS One. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0143296
Gressel J (1999) Tandem constructs: preventing the rise of superweeds. Trends Biotechnol 17:361–366
Grevich JJ, Daniell H (2005) Chloroplast genetic engineering: recent advances and future perspectives. Crit Rev Plant Sci 24:83–107
Gross KL (1981) Predictions of fate from rosette size in four biennial plants species: Verbascum thapsus, Oenothera biennis, Daucus carota, and Tragoponon dubius. Oecologia 48:209–213
Gross KL, Werner PA (1982) Colonizing abilities of biennial plant-species in relation to ground cover—implications for their distributions in a successional sere. Ecology 63:921–931
Grzebelus D, Baranski R, Spalik K, Allender C, Simon PW (2011) Daucus. In: Wild crop relatives: genomic and breeding resources. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 91–113
Grzebelus D, Iorizzo M, Senalik D, Ellison S, Cavagnaro P, Macko-Podgorni A, Heller-Uszynska K, Kilian A, Nothnagel T, Allender C, Simon PW (2014) Diversity, genetic mapping, and signatures of domestication in the carrot (Daucus carota L.) genome, as revealed by Diversity Arrays Technology (DArT) markers. Mol Breeding 33(3):625–637
Harrison P, Dale H (1966) The effect of grazing and clipping on the control of wild carrot. Weeds 14:285–288
Hauser TP (2002) Frost sensitivity of hybrids between wild and cultivated carrots. Cons Genet 3:75–78
Hauser TP, Bjørn GK (2001) Hybrids between wild and cultivated carrots in Danish carrot fields. Genet Resour Crop Evol 48:499–506
Hauser TP, Shim SI (2007) Survival and flowering of hybrids between cultivated and wild carrots (Daucus carota) in Danish grasslands. Environ Biosaf Res 237–247
Hauser TP, Bjorn GK, Magnussen L, Shim SI (2004) Hybrids between cultivated and wild carrot: a life history. In: den Nijs HCM, Bartsch D, Sweet J (eds) Introgression from genetically modified plants into wild relatives. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK
Haygood R, Ives AR, Andow DA (2004) Population genetics of transgene containment. Ecol Lett 7:213–220
Holt BR (1972) Effect of arrival time on recruitment, mortality, and reproduction in successional plant populations. Ecology 53(4):668–673
Howlett BG, Lankin-Vega GO, Pattermore DE (2015) Native and introduced bee abundances on carrot seed crops in New Zealand. New Zeal Plant Prot 68:373–379
Ijaz S (2010) Plant mitochondrial genome: “a sweet and safe home” for transgene. Afr J Biotechnol 9:9196–9199
Iorizzo M, Senalik DA, Ellison SL, Grzebelus D, Cavagnaro PF, Allender C, Brunet J, Spooner DM, Van Deynze A, Simon PW (2013) Genetic structure and domestication of carrot (Daucus carota subsp. sativus) (Apiaceae). Am J Bot 100:930–938
Iorizzo M, Ellison S, Senalik D, Zeng P, Satapoomin P, Huang J, Bowman M, Iovene M, Sanseverino W, Cavagnaro P, Yildiz M (2016) A high-quality carrot genome assembly provides new insights into carotenoid accumulation and asterid genome evolution. Nat Genet 48(6):657
Koul P, Koul AK, Hamal IA (1989) Reproductive biology of wild and cultivated carrot (Daucus carota L.). New Phytol 112(3):437–443
Lacey EP (1981) Seed dispersal in wild carrots. Mich Bot 20:15–20
Lacey EP (1982) Timing of seed dispersal in Daucus carota. Oikos 39:83–91
Lacey EP (1984) Seed mortality in Daucus carota populations: latitudinal effects. Am J Bot 71:1175–1182
Lacey EP (1986) The genetic and environmental control of reproductive timing in a short-lived monocarpic species Daucus carota (Umbelliferae). J Ecol 74:73–86
Lacey EP (1988) Latitudinal variation in reproductive timing of a short-lived monocarp, Daucus carota (Apiaceae). Ecology 69:220–232
Lacey EP, Pace R (1983) Effect of parental flowering and dispersal times on offspring fate in Daucus carota. Oecologia 60:274–278
Lamborn E, Ollerton J (2000) Experimental assessment of the functional morphology of inflorescences of Daucus carota (Apiaceae): testing the ‘fly catcher effect’. Funct Ecol 14:445–454
Magnussen LS, Hauser TP (2007) Hybrids between cultivated and wild carrots in natural populations in Denmark. Heredity 99:185–192
Mandel JR, McCauley DE (2015) Pervasive mitochondrial sequence heteroplasmy in natural populations of wild carrot, Daucus carota spp. carota L. PLoS One 10(8):e0136303
Mandel JR, McAssey EV, Roland KM, McCauley DE (2012) Mitochondrial gene diversity associated with the atp9 stop codon in natural populations of wild carrot (Daucus carota ssp. carota). J Hered 103:418–425
Mandel JR, Ramsey AJ, Iorizzo M, Simon PW (2016) Patterns of gene flow between crop and wild carrot, Daucus carota (Apiaceae) in the United States. PLoS One 11(9):e0161971
Manzano P, Malo JE (2006) Extreme long-distance seed dispersal via sheep. Front Ecol Environ 4(5):244–248
McCauley DE, Sundby AK, Bailey MF, Welch ME (2007) Inheritance of chloroplast DNA is not strictly maternal in Silene vulgaris (Caryophyllaceae): evidence from experimental crosses and natural populations. Am J Bot 94:1333–1337
McCauley DE (2013) Paternal leakage, heteroplasmy, and the evolution of plant mitochondrial genomes. New Phytol 200(4), 966–977
Petit RJ, Duminil J, Fineschi S, Hampe A, Salvini D, Vendramin GG (2005) Comparative organization of chloroplast, mitochondrial and nuclear diversity in plant populations. Mol Ecol 14:689–701
Pritchard JK, Stephens M, Donnelly P (2000) Inference of population structure using multilocus genotype data. Genetics 155(2):945–959
Raybould AF, Gray AJ (1994) Will hybrids of genetically modified crops invade natural communities? Trends Ecol Evol 9:85–89
Reboud X, Zeyl C (1994) Organelle inheritance in plants. Heredity 72:132–140
Reiker J, Schulz B, Wissemann V, Gemeinholzer B (2015) Does origin always matter? Evaluating the influence of nonlocal seed provenances for ecological restoration purposes in a widespread and outcrossing plant species. Ecol Evol 5(23):5642–5651
Rieger MA, Lamond M, Preston C, Powles SB, Roush RT (2002) Pollen-mediated movement of herbicide resistance between commercial canola fields. Science 296(5577):2386–2388
Ritland K (1996) Estimators for pairwise relatedness and individual inbreeding coefficients. Genet Res 67:175–185
Ritland K (2002) Extensions of models for the estimation of mating systems using n independent loci. Heredity 88:221–228
Robledo-Arnuncio JJ, Austerlitz F, Smouse PE (2007) POLDISP: a software package for indirect estimation of contemporary pollen dispersal. Mol Ecol Notes 7:763–766
Röhr H, Kues U, Stahl U (1998) Organelle DNA of plants and fungi: inheritance and recombination. Prog Bot 60:39–87
Ronfort J, Saumitou-Laprade P, Cugen J, Couvet D (1995) Mitochondrial DNA diversity and male sterility in natural populations of Daucus carota ssp. carota. Theor Appl Genet 91:150–159
Rong J, Janson S, Umehara M, Ono M, Vrieling K (2010) Historical and contemporary gene dispersal in wild carrot (Daucus carota spp. carota) populations. Ann Bot 106:285–296
Rong J, Xu S, Meirmans PG, Vrieling K (2013) Dissimilarity of contemporary and historical gene flow in wild carrot (Daucus carota) metapopulation under contrasting levels of human disturbance: implications for risk assessment and management of transgene introgression. Ann Bot 112:1361–1370
Sears BB (1980) Elimination of plastids during spermatogenesis and fertilization in the plant kingdom. Plasmid 4:233–255
Shim SI, Jørgensen RB (2000) Genetic structure in cultivated and wild carrots (Daucus carota L.) revealed by AFLP analysis. Theor Appl Genet 101(1–2):227–233
Small E (1984) Hybridization in the domesticated-weed-wild complex. In: Grant WF (ed) Plant biosystematics. Academic Press, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, pp 195–210
St. Pierre MS, Bayer RJ (1991) The impact of domestication on the genetic variability in the orange carrot, cultivated Daucus carota ssp. sativus and the genetic homogeneity of various cultivars. Theor Appl Genet 82(2):249–253
Umehara M, Eguchi I, Kaneko D, Ono M, Kamada H (2005) Evaluation of gene flow and its environmental effects in the field. Plant Biotechnol J 22:497–504
USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service 2017. United States Government Printing Office, Washington
Van Etten ML, Brunet J (2017) Using population matrix models to reduce the spread of wild carrot. Acta Hortic 1153:273–278
Vekemans X, Hardy OJ (2004) New insights from fine-scale spatial genetic structure analyses in plant populations. Mol Ecol 13:921–935
Verkaar HJ, Schenkeveld AJ (1984) On the ecology of short-lived forbs in chalk grasslands—life-history characteristics. New Phytol 98:659–672
Verma D, Daniell H (2007) Update on plastid transformation vectors chloroplast vector systems for biotechnology applications. Plant Physiol 145:1129–1143
Westmoreland D, Muntan C (1996) The influence of dark central florets on insect attraction and fruit production in Queen Anne’s Lace (Daucus carota L.). Am Midl Nat 1:122–129
Wijnheijmer EHM, Brandenburg WA, Terborg SJ (1989) Interactions between wild and cultivated carrots (Daucus carota L.) in the Netherlands. Euphytica 40:147–154
Wilson GA, Rannala G (2003) Bayesian inference of recent migration rates using multilocus genotypes. Genetics 163:1177–1191
Wright S (1951) The genetical structure of populations. Ann Eugen 15:323–354
Zhang Q, Liu Y, Sodmergen (2003) Examination of the cytoplasmic DNA in male reproductive cells to determine the potential for cytoplasmic inheritance in 295 angiosperm species. Plant Cell Physiol 44:941–951
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Mandel, J.R., Brunet, J. (2019). Gene Flow in Carrot. In: Simon, P., Iorizzo, M., Grzebelus, D., Baranski, R. (eds) The Carrot Genome. Compendium of Plant Genomes. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03389-7_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03389-7_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-03388-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-03389-7
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)