Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Renal Imaging: Congenital Anomalies of the Kidney and Urinary Tract

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Pediatric and Adolescent Urologic Imaging

Abstract

Congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT) account for up to 30 % of all congenital anomalies diagnosed (Schedl A. Nat Rev Genet 8(10):791–802, 2007). These anomalies are often prenatal diagnoses by screening prenatal ultrasound, but can present in childhood or adolescence with a urinary tract infection (UTI) and less commonly with pain. CAKUT diseases are responsible for around 50 % of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) in children in North America (Harambat J, van Stralen KJ, Kim JJ, Tizard EJ. Pediatr Nephrol 27(3):363–373, 2012). In this chapter we will discuss the relevant embryology, the scope of congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT), the approach to prenatal diagnosis and imaging of fetuses with CAKUT, and the approach to postnatal diagnosis and imaging of children with CAKUT. More time will be allotted to the more common congenital anomalies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 299.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Schedl A. Renal abnormalities and their developmental origin. Nat Rev Genet. 2007;8(10):791–802.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Harambat J, van Stralen KJ, Kim JJ, Tizard EJ. Epidemiology of chronic kidney disease in children. Pediatr Nephrol. 2012;27(3):363–73.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Pope JC, Brock 3rd JW, Adams MC, Stephens FD, Ichikawa I. How they begin and how they end: classic and new theories for the development and deterioration of congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract, CAKUT. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1999;10(9):2018–28.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Baskin L, Meaney D, Landsman A, Zderic SA, Macarak E. Bovine bladder compliance increases with normal fetal development. J Urol. 1994;152(2 Pt 2):692–5; discussion 696–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Anderson JK, Kabalin JN, Cadeddu JA. Chapter 1: Surgical Anatomy of the Retroperitoneum, Adrenals, Kidneys, and Ureters. Campbell-Walsh Urology. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier; 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Zelenko N, Coll D, Rosenfeld AT, Smith RC. Normal ureter size on unenhanced helical CT. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2004;182(4):1039–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Hakenberg OW, Linne C, Manseck A, Wirth MP. Bladder wall thickness in normal adults and men with mild lower urinary tract symptoms and benign prostatic enlargement. Neurourol Urodyn. 2000;19(5):585–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Uluocak N, Erdemir F, Parlaktas BS, Caglar MK, Hasiloglu Z, Etikan I. Bladder wall thickness in healthy school-aged children. Urology. 2007;69(4):763–6; discussion 766.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Jequier S, Rousseau O. Sonographic measurements of the normal bladder wall in children. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1987;149(3):563–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Weber S, Moriniere V, Knuppel T, Charbit M, Dusek J, Ghiggeri GM, et al. Prevalence of mutations in renal developmental genes in children with renal hypodysplasia: results of the ESCAPE study. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006;17(10):2864–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Cooper WO, Hernandez-Diaz S, Arbogast PG, Dudley JA, Dyer S, Gideon PS, et al. Major congenital malformations after first-trimester exposure to ACE inhibitors. N Engl J Med. 2006;354(23):2443–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Weaver RG, Cashwell LF, Lorentz W, Whiteman D, Geisinger KR, Ball M. Optic nerve coloboma associated with renal disease. Am J Med Genet. 1988;29(3):597–605.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Fraser FC, Ling D, Clogg D, Nogrady B. Genetic aspects of the BOR syndrome–branchial fistulas, ear pits, hearing loss, and renal anomalies. Am J Med Genet. 1978;2(3):241–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Broyer M, Soto B, Gagnadoux MF, Adi M, Rica C, Gubler MC. Oligomeganephronic renal hypoplasia. Adv Nephrol Necker Hosp. 1997;26:47–63.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Sanna-Cherchi S, Caridi G, Weng PL, Scolari F, Perfumo F, Gharavi AG, et al. Genetic approaches to human renal agenesis/hypoplasia and dysplasia. Pediatr Nephrol. 2007;22(10):1675–84.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Harris J, Robert E, Kallen B. Epidemiologic characteristics of kidney malformations. Eur J Epidemiol. 2000;16(11):985–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Murawski IJ, Gupta IR. Vesicoureteric reflux and renal malformations: a developmental problem. Clin Genet. 2006;69(2):105–17.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Mackie GG, Stephens FD. Duplex kidneys: a correlation of renal dysplasia with position of the ureteral orifice. J Urol. 1975;114(2):274–80.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Risdon RA. Renal dysplasia. I. A clinico-pathological study of 76 cases. J Clin Pathol. 1971;24(1):57–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Ismaili K, Avni FE, Alexander M, Schulman C, Collier F, Hall M. Routine voiding cystourethrography is of no value in neonates with unilateral multicystic dysplastic kidney. J Pediatr. 2005;146(6):759–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Eckoldt F, Woderich R, Smith RD, Heling KS. Antenatal diagnostic aspects of unilateral multicystic kidney dysplasia–sensitivity, specificity, predictive values, differential diagnoses, associated malformations and consequences. Fetal Diagn Ther. 2004;19(2):163–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Aslam M, Watson AR. Unilateral multicystic dysplastic kidney: long term outcomes. Arch Dis Child. 2006;91(10):820–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Kuwertz-Broeking E, Brinkmann OA, Von Lengerke HJ, Sciuk J, Fruend S, Bulla M, et al. Unilateral multicystic dysplastic kidney: experience in children. BJU Int. 2004;93(3):388–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Narchi H. Risk of Wilms’ tumour with multicystic kidney disease: a systematic review. Arch Dis Child. 2005;90(2):147–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Beckwith JB. Should asymptomatic unilateral multicystic dysplastic kidneys be removed because of the future risk of neoplasia? Pediatr Nephrol. 1992;6(6):511.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Shaikewitz ST, Chapman A. Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease: issues regarding the variability of clinical presentation. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1993;3(12):1858–62.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Zerres K, Hansmann M, Mallmann R, Gembruch U. Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease. Problems of prenatal diagnosis. Prenat Diagn. 1988;8(3):215–29.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Bergmann C, Kupper F, Dornia C, Schneider F, Senderek J, Zerres K. Algorithm for efficient PKHD1 mutation screening in autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD). Hum Mutat. 2005;25(3):225–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Wen J. Congenital hepatic fibrosis in autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease. Clin Transl Sci. 2001;4(6):460–5.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Adeva M, El-Youssef M, Rossetti S, Kamath PS, Kubly V, Consugar MB, et al. Clinical and molecular characterization defines a broadened spectrum of autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD). Medicine (Baltimore). 2006;85(1):1–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Peters DJ, Spruit L, Saris JJ, Ravine D, Sandkuijl LA, Fossdal R, et al. Chromosome 4 localization of a second gene for autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease. Nat Genet. 1993;5(4):359–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Mekahli D, Woolf AS, Bockenhauer D. Similar renal outcomes in children with ADPKD diagnosed by screening or presenting with symptoms. Pediatr Nephrol. 2010;25(11):2275–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Belz MM, Hughes RL, Kaehny WD, Johnson AM, Fick-Brosnahan GM, Earnest MP, et al. Familial clustering of ruptured intracranial aneurysms in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease. Am J Kidney Dis. 2001;38(4):770–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Cadnapaphornchai MA, McFann K, Strain JD, Masoumi A, Schrier RW. Increased left ventricular mass in children with autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease and borderline hypertension. Kidney Int. 2008;74(9):1192–6.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Israel GM, Bosniak MA. An update of the Bosniak renal cyst classification system. Urology. 2005;66(3): 484–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Harisinghani MG, Maher MM, Gervais DA, McGovern F, Hahn P, Jhaveri K, et al. Incidence of malignancy in complex cystic renal masses (Bosniak category III): should imaging-guided biopsy precede surgery? AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2003;180(3):755–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Wallis MC, Lorenzo AJ, Farhat WA, Bagli DJ, Khoury AE, Pippi Salle JL. Risk assessment of incidentally detected complex renal cysts in children: potential role for a modification of the Bosniak classification. J Urol. 2008;180(1):317–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Peng Y, Jia L, Sun N, Li J, Fu L, Zeng J, et al. Assessment of cystic renal masses in children: comparison of multislice computed tomography and ultrasound imaging using the Bosniak classification system. Eur J Radiol. 2010;75(3):287–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Terada N, Ichioka K, Matsuta Y, Okubo K, Yoshimura K, Arai Y. The natural history of simple renal cysts. J Urol. 2002;167(1):21–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Ravine D, Gibson RN, Donlan J, Sheffield LJ. An ultrasound renal cyst prevalence survey: specificity data for inherited renal cystic diseases. Am J Kidney Dis. 1993;22(6):803–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. McHugh K, Stringer DA, Hebert D, Babiak CA. Simple renal cysts in children: diagnosis and follow-up with US. Radiology. 1991;178(2):383–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Curry NS. Small renal masses (lesions smaller than 3 cm): imaging evaluation and management. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1995;164(2):355–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Parikh CR, McCall D, Engelman C, Schrier RW. Congenital renal agenesis: case-control analysis of birth characteristics. Am J Kidney Dis. 2002;39(4): 689–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Song JT, Ritchey ML, Zerin JM, Bloom DA. Incidence of vesicoureteral reflux in children with unilateral renal agenesis. J Urol. 1995;153(4):1249–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Kaneyama K, Yamataka A, Satake S, Yanai T, Lane GJ, Kaneko K, et al. Associated urologic anomalies in children with solitary kidney. J Pediatr Surg. 2004;39(1):85–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Singer A, Simmons MZ, Maldjian PD. Spectrum of congenital renal anomalies presenting in adulthood. Clin Imaging. 2008;32(3):183–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Smith NA, Laufer MR. Obstructed hemivagina and ipsilateral renal anomaly (OHVIRA) syndrome: management and follow-up. Fertil Steril. 2007;87(4):918–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Guarino N, Tadini B, Camardi P, Silvestro L, Lace R, Bianchi M. The incidence of associated urological abnormalities in children with renal ectopia. J Urol. 2004;172(4 Pt 2):1757–9; discussion 1759.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Murphy JJ, Altit G, Zerhouni S. The intrathoracic kidney: should we fix it? J Pediatr Surg. 2012;47(5):970–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. D’Alberton A, Reschini E, Ferrari N, Candiani P. Prevalence of urinary tract abnormalities in a large series of patients with uterovaginal atresia. J Urol. 1981;126(5):623–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Fedele L, Bianchi S, Agnoli B, Tozzi L, Vignali M. Urinary tract anomalies associated with unicornuate uterus. J Urol. 1996;155(3):847–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. McDonald JH, McClellan DS. Crossed renal ectopia. Am J Surg. 1957;93(6):995–1002.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Weizer AZ, Silverstein AD, Auge BK, Delvecchio FC, Raj G, Albala DM, et al. Determining the incidence of horseshoe kidney from radiographic data at a single institution. J Urol. 2003;170(5):1722–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. O’Brien J, Buckley O, Doody O, Ward E, Persaud T, Torreggiani W. Imaging of horseshoe kidneys and their complications. J Med Imaging Radiat Oncol. 2008;52(3):216–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Boatman DL, Cornell SH, Kolln CP. The arterial supply of horseshoe kidneys. Am J Roentgenol Radium Ther Nucl Med. 1971;113(3):447–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Ek S, Lidefeldt KJ, Varricio L. Fetal hydronephrosis; prevalence, natural history and postnatal consequences in an unselected population. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2007;86(12):1463–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Sairam S, Al-Habib A, Sasson S, Thilaganathan B. Natural history of fetal hydronephrosis diagnosed on mid-trimester ultrasound. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2001;17(3):191–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Fernbach SK, Maizels M, Conway JJ. Ultrasound grading of hydronephrosis: introduction to the system used by the Society for Fetal Urology. Pediatr Radiol. 1993;23(6):478–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Tombesi MM, Alconcher LF. Short-term outcome of mild isolated antenatal hydronephrosis conservatively managed. J Pediatr Urol. 2011;8(2):129–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. de Kort EH, Bambang Oetomo S, Zegers SH. The long-term outcome of antenatal hydronephrosis up to 15 millimetres justifies a noninvasive postnatal follow-up. Acta Paediatr. 2008;97(6):708–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Coelho GM, Bouzada MC, Pereira AK, Figueiredo BF, Leite MR, Oliveira DS, et al. Outcome of isolated antenatal hydronephrosis: a prospective cohort study. Pediatr Nephrol. 2007;22(10):1727–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Coelho GM, Bouzada MC, Lemos GS, Pereira AK, Lima BP, Oliveira EA. Risk factors for urinary tract infection in children with prenatal renal pelvic dilatation. J Urol. 2008;179(1):284–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Wollenberg A, Neuhaus TJ, Willi UV, Wisser J. Outcome of fetal renal pelvic dilatation diagnosed during the third trimester. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2005;25(5):483–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Lee RS, Cendron M, Kinnamon DD, Nguyen HT. Antenatal hydronephrosis as a predictor of postnatal outcome: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2006;118(2):586–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Woodward M, Frank D. Postnatal management of antenatal hydronephrosis. BJU Int. 2002;89(2):149–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Liang CC, Cheng PJ, Lin CJ, Chen HW, Chao AS, Chang SD. Outcome of prenatally diagnosed fetal hydronephrosis. J Reprod Med. 2002;47(1):27–32.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Chertin B, Pollack A, Koulikov D, Rabinowitz R, Hain D, Hadas-Halpren I, et al. Conservative treatment of ureteropelvic junction obstruction in children with antenatal diagnosis of hydronephrosis: lessons learned after 16 years of follow-up. Eur Urol. 2006;49(4):734–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Wang XM, Jia LQ, Wang Y, Wang N. Utilizing ultrasonography in the diagnosis of pediatric fibroepithelial polyps causing ureteropelvic junction obstruction. Pediatr Radiol. 2012;42(9):1107–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Cussen LJ. Dimensions of the normal ureter in infancy and childhood. Invest Urol. 1967;5(2): 164–78.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Report of working party to establish an international nomenclature for the large ureter. Birth Defects Orig Artic Ser. 1977;13(5):3–8.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Hodges SJ, Werle D, McLorie G, Atala A. Megaureter. ScientificWorldJournal. 2010;10:603–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Arena F, Baldari S, Proietto F, Centorrino A, Scalfari G, Romeo G. Conservative treatment in primary neonatal megaureter. Eur J Pediatr Surg. 1998;8(6):347–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Liu HY, Dhillon HK, Yeung CK, Diamond DA, Duffy PG, Ransley PG. Clinical outcome and management of prenatally diagnosed primary megaureters. J Urol. 1994;152(2 Pt 2):614–17.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Baskin LS, Zderic SA, Snyder HM, Duckett JW. Primary dilated megaureter: long-term followup. J Urol. 1994;152(2 Pt 2):618–21.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Shukla AR, Cooper J, Patel RP, Carr MC, Canning DA, Zderic SA, et al. Prenatally detected primary megaureter: a role for extended followup. J Urol. 2005;173(4):1353–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Shokeir AA, Nijman RJ. Ureterocele: an ongoing challenge in infancy and childhood. BJU Int. 2002;90(8):777–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Jelen Z. The value of ultrasonography as a screening procedure of the neonatal urinary tract: a survey of 1021 infants. Int Urol Nephrol. 1993;25(1):3–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Besson R, Ngoc BT, Laboure S, Debeugny P. Incidence of urinary tract infection in neonates with antenatally diagnosed ureteroceles. Eur J Pediatr Surg. 2000;10(2):111–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Coplen DE, Duckett JW. The modern approach to ureteroceles. J Urol. 1995;153(1):166–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Decter RM. Renal duplication and fusion anomalies. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1997;44(5):1323–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Zamani R, Martinez R, Reddy MP. Duplicated collecting system: not following Weigert-Meyer rule as a result of renal stone obstructing the lower ureteropelvic junction. Clin Nucl Med. 2004;29(6):386–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Jain P, Parelkar S, Shah H, Sanghavi B, Mishra P. Uncrossed complete ureteral duplication with dysplastic lower moiety: a violation of the Weigert-Meyer law. J Pediatr Urol. 2008;4(5):404–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Hoberman A, Charron M, Hickey RW, Baskin M, Kearney DH, Wald ER. Imaging studies after a first febrile urinary tract infection in young children. N Engl J Med. 2003;348(3):195–202.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Medical versus surgical treatment of primary vesicoureteral reflux: report of the International Reflux Study Committee. Pediatrics. 1981;67(3):392–400.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Willi U, Treves S. Radionuclide voiding cystography. Urol Radiol. 1983;5(3):161–73, 175.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Darge K. Diagnosis of vesicoureteral reflux with ultrasonography. Pediatr Nephrol. 2002;17(1): 52–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Pieretti-Vanmarcke R, Pieretti A, Pieretti RV. Megacalycosis: a rare condition. Pediatr Nephrol. 2009;24(5):1077–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Gearhart JP, Ben-Chaim J, Jeffs RD, Sanders RC. Criteria for the prenatal diagnosis of classic bladder exstrophy. Obstet Gynecol. 1995;85(6):961–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Stec AA, Baradaran N, Gearhart JP. Congenital renal anomalies in patients with classic bladder exstrophy. Urology. 2012;79(1):207–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Noh PH, Cooper CS, Winkler AC, Zderic SA, Snyder 3rd HM, Canning DA. Prognostic factors for long-term renal function in boys with the prune-belly syndrome. J Urol. 1999;162(4):1399–401.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Reinberg Y, Manivel JC, Pettinato G, Gonzalez R. Development of renal failure in children with the prune belly syndrome. J Urol. 1991;145(5):1017–19.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Krishnan A, de Souza A, Konijeti R, Baskin LS. The anatomy and embryology of posterior urethral valves. J Urol. 2006;175(4):1214–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. DeFoor W, Clark C, Jackson E, Reddy P, Minevich E, Sheldon C. Risk factors for end stage renal disease in children with posterior urethral valves. J Urol. 2008;180(4 Suppl):1705–8; discussion 1708.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Dugoff L. Ultrasound diagnosis of structural abnormalities in the first trimester. Prenat Diagn. 2002;22(4):316–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Cohen HL, Kravets F, Zucconi W, Ratani R, Shah S, Dougherty D. Congenital abnormalities of the genitourinary system. Semin Roentgenol. 2004;39(2):282–303.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Vanderheyden T, Kumar S, Fisk NM. Fetal renal impairment. Semin Neonatol. 2003;8(4):279–89.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Leibovitch L, Kuint J, Rosenfeld E, Schushan-Eisen I, Weissmann-Brenner A, Maayan-Metzger A. Short-term outcome among term singleton infants with intrapartum oligohydramnios. Acta Paediatr. 2012;101(7):727–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Chamberlain PF, Manning FA, Morrison I, Harman CR, Lange IR. Ultrasound evaluation of amniotic fluid volume. I. The relationship of marginal and decreased amniotic fluid volumes to perinatal outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1984;150(3):245–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Rutherford SE, Phelan JP, Smith CV, Jacobs N. The four-quadrant assessment of amniotic fluid volume: an adjunct to antepartum fetal heart rate testing. Obstet Gynecol. 1987;70(3 Pt 1):353–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Nabhan AF, Abdelmoula YA. Amniotic fluid index versus single deepest vertical pocket as a screening test for preventing adverse pregnancy outcome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008;3:CD006593.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Chauvin NA, Epelman M, Victoria T, Johnson AM. Complex genitourinary abnormalities on fetal MRI: imaging findings and approach to diagnosis. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2012;199(2):W222–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Caire JT, Ramus RM, Magee KP, Fullington BK, Ewalt DH, Twickler DM. MRI of fetal genitourinary anomalies. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2003;181(5):1381–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Alamo L, Laswad T, Schnyder P, Meuli R, Vial Y, Osterheld MC, et al. Fetal MRI as complement to US in the diagnosis and characterization of anomalies of the genito-urinary tract. Eur J Radiol. 2010;76(2):258–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Vates TS, Shull MJ, Underberg-Davis SJ, Fleisher MH. Complications of voiding cystourethrography in the evaluation of infants with prenatally detected hydronephrosis. J Urol. 1999;162(3 Pt 2):1221–3.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Estrada Jr CR, Passerotti CC, Graham DA, Peters CA, Bauer SB, Diamond DA, et al. Nomograms for predicting annual resolution rate of primary vesicoureteral reflux: results from 2,462 children. J Urol. 2009;182(4):1535–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Bokenkamp A, von Kries R, Nowak-Gottl U, Gobel U, Hoyer PF. Neonatal renal venous thrombosis in Germany between 1992 and 1994: epidemiology, treatment and outcome. Eur J Pediatr. 2000;159(1–2):44–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Lau KK, Stoffman JM, Williams S, McCusker P, Brandao L, Patel S, et al. Neonatal renal vein thrombosis: review of the English-language literature between 1992 and 2006. Pediatrics. 2007;120(5): e1278–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Winyard PJ, Bharucha T, De Bruyn R, Dillon MJ, Van’t Hoff W, Trompeter RS, et al. Perinatal renal venous thrombosis: presenting renal length predicts outcome. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2006;91(4):F273–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Ave., A633, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA

    Bruce J. Schlomer MD & Laurence S. Baskin MD

  2. Diagnostic Imaging, Children’s Hospital and Research Center, 747 52nd St., Oakland, CA, 94609, USA

    Ronald A. Cohen MD

Authors
  1. Bruce J. Schlomer MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ronald A. Cohen MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Laurence S. Baskin MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Laurence S. Baskin MD .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Pediatric Urology Department, Cohen Children’s Medical Center of New York, Long Island, New York, USA

    Lane S. Palmer

  2. Pediatric and Adolescent Urology Institute, Cleveland, Ohio, USA

    Jeffrey S. Palmer

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Schlomer, B.J., Cohen, R.A., Baskin, L.S. (2014). Renal Imaging: Congenital Anomalies of the Kidney and Urinary Tract. In: Palmer, L., Palmer, J. (eds) Pediatric and Adolescent Urologic Imaging. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8654-1_9

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8654-1_9

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-8653-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-8654-1

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation