Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Gene by Environment Interplay in Cognitive Aging

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Behavior Genetics of Cognition Across the Lifespan

Part of the book series: Advances in Behavior Genetics ((AIBG,volume 1))

Abstract

In this chapter, we reconsider existing theoretical models of Gene–Environment (GE) interplay and view them through the lens of a lifespan perspective, focusing on the shifting nature of the environments that impact cognitive function throughout adulthood. Existing evidence for GE interplay in cognitive aging is evaluated from this vantage point, including investigations that tap recent advances in genotyping and gene expression. The extent to which genetic factors are actually correlated with environments that provide more or less support for cognitive skills is unknown. However, educational and occupational attainment as well as leisure activities and exercise may reflect GE correlational processes that deserve further examination from a life course perspective. Emerging evidence is perhaps a bit more encouraging with respect to G × E processes: e.g., higher education and participation in leisure and physical activities may lower the risk of cognitive decline in those who already carry the APOE e4 risk allele. Familiality of methylation levels and telomere lengths, suggests that genetically driven differential sensitivities to environments (e.g., stress) may be important to individual differences in cognitive aging, but detailed investigations of specific environmental factors is minimal as yet. Large-scale efforts to study G × E influences on aging outcomes are underway, and predicted to contribute in important ways to the emerging literature on GE interplay using behavioral genetics and molecular methods.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adler, N. E., Boyce, T., Chesney, M. A., Cohen, S., Folkman, S., Kahn, R. L., & Syme, S. L. (1994). Socioeconomic status and health: The challenge of the gradient. American Psychologist, 49(1), 15–24. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.49.1.15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Andel, R., Crowe, M., Pedersen, N. L., Mortimer, J., Crimmins, E., Johansson, B., & Gatz, M. (2005). Complexity of work and risk of Alzheimer’s disease: a population-based study of Swedish twins. (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Research Support, U.S. Gov’t, P.H.S. Twin Study). The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 60(5). P251–258.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andel, R., Vigen, C., Mack, W. J., Clark, L. J., & Gatz, M. (2006). The effect of education and occupational complexity on rate of cognitive decline in Alzheimer’s patients. (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural). Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 12(1), 147–152. doi:10.1017/S1355617706060206.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Andel, R., Kareholt, I., Parker, M. G., Thorslund, M., & Gatz, M. (2007). Complexity of primary lifetime occupation and cognition in advanced old age. (Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t). Journal of Aging and Health, 19(3), 397–415. doi:10.1177/0898264307300171.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ariza, M., Pueyo, R., Matarin Mdel, M., Junque, C., Mataro, M., Clemente, I., et al. (2006). Influence of APOE polymorphism on cognitive and behavioural outcome in moderate and severe traumatic brain injury. (Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t). Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 77(10), 1191–1193. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2005.085167.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alzheimer’s Association (2012). Alzheimer’s disease facts and figures. Alzheimer’s and Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer’s Association, 8, 131–168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aubert, G., & Lansdorp, P. M. (2008). Telomeres and aging. Physiological Reviews, 88(2), 557–579. doi:10.1152/physrev.00026.2007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bakaysa, S. L., Mucci, L. A., Slagboom, P. E., Boomsma, D. I., McClearn, G. E., Johansson, B., & Pedersen, N. L. (2007). Telomere length predicts survival independent of genetic influences. (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Twin Study). Aging Cell, 6(6), 769–774. doi:10.1111/j.1474-9726.2007.00340.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baltes, P. B., Lindenberger, U., & Staudinger, U. M. (2006). Life span theory in developmental psychology. In R. M. Lerner & W. Damon (Eds.), Handbook of Child Psychology: Vol. 1, Theoretical Models of Human Development (6th ed, pp. 569–664). Hoboken: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belsky, J., & Beaver, K. M. (2011). Cumulative-genetic plasticity, parenting and adolescent self-regulation. (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 52(5), 619–626. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02327.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Belsky, J., Jonassaint, C., Pluess, M., Stanton, M., Brummett, B., & Williams, R. (2009). Vulnerability genes or plasticity genes? (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’tReview). Molecular Psychiatry, 14(8), 746–754. doi:10.1038/mp.2009.44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bennett, D. A., Schneider, J. A., Tang, Y., Arnold, S. E., & Wilson, R. S. (2006). The effect of social networks on the relation between Alzheimer’s disease pathology and level of cognitive function in old people: A longitudinal cohort study. (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural). Lancet Neurology, 5(5), 406–412. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(06)70417–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biegler, K. A., Anderson, A. K., Wenzel, L. B., Osann, K., & Nelson, E. L. (2012). Longitudinal change in telomere length and the chronic stress response in a randomized pilot biobehavioral clinical study: Implications for cancer prevention. (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural). Cancer Prevention Research, 5(10), 1173–1182. doi:10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-12-0008.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bieman-Copland, S., Ryan, E. B., & Cassano, J. (1998). Responding to challenges of late life. In D. M. Stack & D. R. White (Eds.), Improving competence across the lifespan: Building interventions based on theory and research (pp. 141–157). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bischoff, C., Graakjaer, J., Petersen, H. C., Hjelmborg, J. V. B., Vaupel, J. W., Bohr, V., et al. (2005). The heritability of telomere length among the elderly and oldest-old. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 8(5), 433–439. doi:10.1375/183242705774310141.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boardman, J. D., Barnes, L. L., Wilson, R. S., Evans, D. A., & de Leon, C. F. M. (2012). Social disorder, apoe-e4 genotype, and change in cognitive function among older adults living in Chicago. Social Science & Medicine, 74(10), 1584–1590. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.02.012.

  • Bocklandt, S., Lin, W., Sehl, M. E., Sanchez, F. J., Sinsheimer, J. S., Horvath, S., & Vilain, E. (2011). Epigenetic predictor of age. (Twin Study). PLoS ONE, 6(6), e14821. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014821.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boks, M. P., Derks, E. M., Weisenberger, D. J., Strengman, E., Janson, E., Sommer, I. E., Ophoff, R. A., et al. (2009). The relationship of DNA methylation with age, gender and genotype in twins and healthy controls. (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Twin Study). PLoS ONE, 4(8), e6767. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006767.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boyce, W. T. (2007). A biology of misfortune: Stress reactivity, social context, and the ontogeny of psychopathology in early life. In A. Masten (Ed.), Multilevel dynamics in developmental psychopathology: Pathways to the future (34th ed., pp. 45–82). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buetnner, D. (2008). The Blue Zones: Lessons for living longer from the people who’ve lived the longest. Washington, DC: National Geographic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caplan, L. J., & Schooler, C. (2006). Household work complexity, intellectual functioning, and self-esteem in men and women. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68, 883–900.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carrero, J. J., Stenvinkel, P., Fellstrom, B., Qureshi, A. R., Lamb, K., Heimburger, O., et al. (2008).Telomere attrition is associated with inflammation, low fetuin-A levels and high mortality in prevalent haemodialysis patients. (Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t). Journal of Internal Medicine, 263(3), 302–312. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2796.2007.01890.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chadwick, M. J., Hassabis, D., Weiskopf, N., & Maguire, E. A. (2010). Decoding individual episodic memory traces in the human hippocampus. (Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t). Current Biology, 20(6), 544–547. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2010.01.053.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Y., Durakoglugil, M. S., Xian, X., & Herz, J. (2010). ApoE4 reduces glutamate receptor function and synaptic plasticity by selectively impairing ApoE receptor recycling. (In Vitro Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(26), 12011–12016. doi:10.1073/pnas.0914984107.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, C.-H., Gutierrez, E. D., Thompson, W., Panizzon, M. S., Jernigan, T. L., Eyler, L. T., et al. (2012). Hierarchical genetic organization of human cortical surface area. Science, 335(6076), 1634–1636. doi:10.1126/science.1215330.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cherkas, L. F., Aviv, A., Valdes, A. M., Hunkin, J. L., Gardner, J. P., Surdulescu, G. L., et al. (2006). The effects of social status on biological aging as measured by white-blood-cell telomere length. (Comparative Study Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t). Aging Cell, 5(5), 361–365. doi:10.1111/j.1474-9726.2006.00222.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chouliaras, L., Rutten, B. P., Kenis, G., Peerbooms, O., Visser, P. J., Verhey, F., et al. (2010a). Epigenetic regulation in the pathophysiology of Alzheimer’s disease. Progress in Neurobiology, 90(4), 498–510. doi:S0301-0082(10)00013-4 [pii] 10.1016/j.pneurobio. 2010. 01.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chouliaras, L., van den Hove, D. L., Kenis, G., Dela Cruz, J., Lemmens, M. A., van Os, J., et al. (2010b). Caloric restriction attenuates age-related changes of DNA methyltransferase 3a in mouse hippocampus. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 25(4), 616–623. doi:S0889-1591(10)00571-4 [pii] 10.1016/j.bbi.2010.11.016.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christensen, H. (2001). What cognitive changes can be expected with normal ageing? (Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Review). The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 35(6), 768–775.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Christensen, B. C., Houseman, E. A., Marsit, C. J., Zheng, S., Wrensch, M. R., Wiemels, J. L., et al. (2009). Aging and environmental exposures alter tissue-specific DNA methylation dependent upon CpG island context. (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t). PLoS Genetics, 5(8), e1000602. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000602.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, S. W. (2009). Social regulation of human gene expression. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(3), 132–137. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01623.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coolen, M. W., Statham, A. L., Qu, W., Campbell, M. J., Henders, A. K., Montgomery, G. W., et al. (2011). Impact of the genome on the epigenome is manifested in DNA methylation patterns of imprinted regions in monozygotic and dizygotic twins. (Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Twin Study). PLoS ONE, 6(10), e25590. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0025590.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dardiotis, E., Grigoriadis, S., & Hadjigeorgiou, G. M. (2012). Genetic factors influencing outcome from neurotrauma. (Review). Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 25(3), 231–238. doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e3283523c0e.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davies, G., Tenesa, A., Payton, A., Yang, J., Harris, S. E., Liewald, D., et al. (2011). Genome-wide association studies establish that human intelligence is highly heritable and polygenic. (Meta-Analysis Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t). Molecular Psychiatry, 16(10), 996–1005. doi:10.1038/mp.2011.85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Day, J. J., & Sweatt, J. D. (2010). DNA methylation and memory formation. Nature Neuroscience, 13(11), 1319–1323. doi:10.1038/nn.2666.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Day, J. J., & Sweatt, J. D. (2011). Epigenetic mechanisms in cognition. Neuron, 70(5), 813–829. doi:S0896-6273(11)00433-8 [pii] 10.1016/j.neuron.2011.05.019.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Day, J. J., & Sweatt, J. D. (2012). Epigenetic treatments for cognitive impairments. Neuropsychopharmacology, 37(1), 247–260. doi:10.1038/npp.2011.85 npp201185 [pii].

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deary, I. J., Yang, J., Davies, G., Harris, S. E., Tenesa, A., Liewald, D., Visscher, P. M., et al. (2012). Genetic contributions to stability and change in intelligence from childhood to old age. (Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t). Nature, 482(7384), 212–215. doi:10.1038/nature10781.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dick, D. M. (2011). Gene-environment interaction in psychological traits and disorders. (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Review). Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 7, 383–409. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032210-104518.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dziedzic, T. (2006). Systemic inflammatory markers and risk of dementia. American Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Dementias, 21(4), 258–262.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Epel, E. S. (2009). Psychological and metabolic stress: A recipe for accelerated cellular aging? (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Review). Hormones, 8(1), 7–22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Epel, E. S., Blackburn, E. H., Lin, J., Dhabhar, F. S., Adler, N. E., Morrow, J. D., & Cawthon, R. M. (2004). Accelerated telomere shortening in response to life stress. (Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Research Support, U.S. Gov’t, P.H.S.). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101(49), 17312–17315. doi:10.1073/pnas.0407162101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erickson, K. I., Miller, D. L., Weinstein, A. M., Akl, S. L., & Banducci, S. (2012). Physical activity and brain plasticity in late adulthood: A conceptual and comprehensive review (Vol. 3).

    Google Scholar 

  • Etnier, J. L., Caselli, R. J., Reiman, E. M., Alexander, G. E., Sibley, B. A., Tessier, D., & McLemore, E. C. (2007). Cognitive performance in older women relative to ApoE-epsilon4 genotype and aerobic fitness. (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t). Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39(1), 199–207. doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000239399.85955.5e.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, G. W. (2004). The environment of childhood poverty. (Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Research Support, U.S. Gov’t, P.H.S. Review). The American Psychologist, 59(2), 77–92. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.59.2.77.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Falconer, D. S. (1989). Introduction to Quantitative Genetics. (3rd ed.). London: Longman, Scientific & Technical.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feil, R., & Fraga, M. F. (2012). Epigenetics and the environment: Emerging patterns and implications. (10.1038/nrg3142). Nature Reviews Genetics, 13(2), 97–109.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandez, A. F., Assenov, Y., Martin-Subero, J. I., Balint, B., Siebert, R., Taniguchi, H., & Esteller, M. (2012). A DNA methylation fingerprint of 1628 human samples. (Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t). Genome Research, 22(2), 407–419. doi:10.1101/gr.119867.110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrari, C., Xu, W.-L., Wang, H.-X., Winblad, B., Sorbi, S., Qiu, C., & Fratiglioni, L. (2012). How can elderly apolipoprotein E Œµ4 carriers remain free from dementia? Neurobiology of Aging, 34(1), 13–21. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2012.03.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Finkel, D., & Reynolds, C. A. (2009). Behavioral genetic investigations of cognitive aging. In Y.-K. Kim (Ed.), Handbook of Behavior Genetics (pp. 101–112). New York: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Finkel, D., Reynolds, C. A., Berg, S., & Pedersen, N. L. (2006). Surprising lack of sex differences in normal cognitive aging in twins. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 62(4), 335–357.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Finkel, D., Andel, R., Gatz, M., & Pedersen, N. L. (2009). The role of occupational complexity in trajectories of cognitive aging before and after retirement. (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Twin Study). Psychology and Aging, 24(3), 563–573. doi:10.1037/a0015511.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, R. A. (1925). The resemblance between twins, a statistical examination of Lauterbach’s Measurements. Genetics, 10(6), 569–579.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fotenos, A. F., Mintun, M. A., Snyder, A. Z., Morris, J. C., & Buckner, R. L. (2008). Brain volume decline in aging: evidence for a relation between socioeconomic status, preclinical Alzheimer disease, and reserve. (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t). Archives of Neurology, 65(1), 113–120. doi:10.1001/archneurol.2007.27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fozard, J. L., Reitsema, J., Bouma, H., & Graafmans, J. A. M. (2000). Gerontechnology: Creating enabling environments for the challenges and opportunities of aging. Educational Gerontology, 26, 331–344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fraga, M. F., Ballestar, E., Paz, M. F., Ropero, S., Setien, F., Ballestar, M. L., et al. (2005). Epigenetic differences arise during the lifetime of monozygotic twins. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102(30), 10604–10609.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fritsch, B., Reis, J., Martinowich, K., Schambra, H. M., Ji, Y., Cohen, L. G., & Lu, B. (2010). Direct current stimulation promotes BDNF-dependent synaptic plasticity: Potential implications for motor learning. (Research Support, N.I.H., Intramural Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t). Neuron, 66(2), 198–204. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2010.03.035.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gatz, M. (2007). Genetics, dementia, and the elderly. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 123–127.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gatz, M., Mortimer, J. A., Fratiglioni, L., Johansson, B., Berg, S., Andel, R., et al. (2007). Accounting for the relationship between low education and dementia: A twin study. (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Twin Study). Physiology & Behavior, 92(1–2), 232–237. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.05.042.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giedd, J., Stockman, M., Weddle, C., Liverpool, M., Alexander-Bloch, A., Wallace, G., et al. (2010). Anatomic magnetic resonance imaging of the developing child and adolescent brain and effects of genetic variation. Neuropsychology Review, 20(4), 349–361. doi:10.1007/s11065-010-9151-9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gilley, D., Herbert, B. S., Huda, N., Tanaka, H., & Reed, T. (2008). Factors impacting human telomere homeostasis and age-related disease. (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Review). Mechanisms of Ageing and Development, 129(1–2), 27–34. doi:10.1016/j.mad.2007.10.010.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gimeno, D., Marmot, M. G., & Singh-Manoux, A. (2008). Inflammatory markers and cognitive function in middle-aged adults: The Whitehall II study. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 33(10), 1322–1334.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Glymour, M. M., Tzourio, C., & Dufouil, C. (2012). Is cognitive aging predicted by one’s own or one’s parents’ educational level? Results from the three-city study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 175(8), 750–759. doi:10.1093/aje/kwr509.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gottlieb, G. (1991). Experiential canalization of behavioral development: Theory. Developmental Psychology, 27, 4–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gottlieb, G. (2007). Probabilistic epigenesis. Developmental Science, 10(1), 1–11. doi: DESC556 [pii] 10.1111/j.1467–7687.2007.00556.x

    Google Scholar 

  • Gow, A. J., Johnson, W., Pattie, A., Brett, C. E., Roberts, B., Starr, J. M., & Deary, I. J. (2011). Stability and change in intelligence from age 11 to ages 70, 79, and 87: The Lothian Birth Cohorts of 1921 and 1936. (Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t). Psychology and Aging, 26(1), 232–240. doi:10.1037/a0021072.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Graff, J., & Mansuy, I. M. (2009). Epigenetic dysregulation in cognitive disorders. European Journal of Neuroscience, 30(1), 1–8. doi:EJN6787 [pii] 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2009.06787.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grant, M. D., Kremen, W. S., Jacobson, K. C., Franz, C., Xian, H., Eisen, S. A., et al. (2010). Does parental education have a moderating effect on the genetic and environmental influences of general cognitive ability in early adulthood? (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, U.S. Gov’t, Non-P.H.S. Twin Study). Behavior Genetics, 40(4), 438–446. doi:10.1007/s10519-010-9351-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenough, W. T., McDonald, J. W., Parnisari, R. M., & Camel, J. E. (1986). Environmental conditions modulate degeneration and new dendrite growth in cerebellum of senescent rats. Brain research, 380(1), 136–143.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hanscombe, K. B., Trzaskowski, M., Haworth, C. M., Davis, O. S., Dale, P. S., & Plomin, R. (2012). Socioeconomic status (SES) and children’s intelligence (IQ): In a UK-representative sample SES moderates the environmental, not genetic, effect on IQ. (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Twin Study). PLoS ONE, 7(2), e30320. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0030320.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harati, H., Barbelivien, A., Herbeaux, K., Muller, M. A., Engeln, M., Kelche, C., et al. (2012). Lifelong environmental enrichment in rats: impact on emotional behavior, spatial memory vividness, and cholinergic neurons over the lifespan. Age. doi:10.1007/s11357-012-9424-8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harbeby, E., Jouin, M., Alessandri, J. M., Lallemand, M. S., Linard, A., Lavialle, M., et al. (2012).n-3 PUFA status affects expression of genes involved in neuroenergetics differently in the fronto-parietal cortex compared to the CA1 area of the hippocampus: Effect of rest and neuronal activation in the rat. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids, 86(6), 211–220. doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2012.04.008.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harden, K. P., Turkheimer, E., & Loehlin, J. C. (2007).Genotype by environment interaction in adolescents’ cognitive aptitude. Behavior Genetics, 37(2), 273–283. doi:10.1007/s10519-006-9113-4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Head, D., Bugg, J. M., Goate, A. M., Fagan, A. M., Mintun, M. A., Benzinger, T., et al. (2012). Exercise engagement as a moderator of the effects of APOE genotype on amyloid deposition. Archives of neurology, 69(5), 636–643. doi:10.1001/archneurol.2011.845.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holtzman, D. M., & Fagan, A. M. (1998). Potential role of apoE in structural plasticity in the nervous system; implications for disorders of the central nervous system. Trends in cardiovascular medicine, 8(6), 250–255.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoth, K. F., Haley, A. P., Gunstad, J., Paul, R. H., Poppas, A., Jefferson, A. L., et al. (2008). Elevated C-reactive protein is related to cognitive decline in older adults with cardiovascular disease. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 56(10), 1898–1903.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Houben, J. M., Moonen, H. J., van Schooten, F. J., & Hageman, G. J. (2008).Telomere length assessment: Biomarker of chronic oxidative stress? (Review). Free Radical Biology & Medicine, 44(3), 235–246. doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2007.10.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huda, N., Tanaka, H., Herbert, B. S., Reed, T., & Gilley, D. (2007).Shared environmental factors associated with telomere length maintenance in elderly male twins. (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Twin Study). Aging Cell, 6(5), 709–713. doi:10.1111/j.1474-9726.2007.00330.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jinks, J. L., & Fulker, D. W. (1970). Comparison of the biometrical genetical, MAVA, and classical approaches to the analysis of human behavior. Psychological bulletin, 73(5), 311–349.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johansson, B., Hofer, S. M., Allaire, J. C., Maldonado-Molina, M. M., Piccinin, A. M., Berg, S., et al. (2004).Change in cognitive capabilities in the oldest old: The effects of proximity to death in genetically related individuals over a 6-year period. (Research Support, U.S. Gov’t, P.H.S. Twin Study). Psychology and Aging, 19(1), 145–156. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.19.1.145.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, W., Deary, I. J., McGue, M., & Christensen, K. (2009). Genetic and environmental transactions linking cognitive ability, physical fitness, and education in late life. Psychology and Aging, 24, 48–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jordanova, V., Stewart, R., Davies, E., Sherwood, R., & Prince, M. (2007). Markers of inflammation and cognitive decline in an African-Caribbean population. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 22(10), 966–973.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaliman, P., Parrizas, M., Lalanza, J. F., Camins, A., Escorihuela, R. M., & Pallas, M. (2011). Neurophysiological and epigenetic effects of physical exercise on the aging process. Ageing Research Reviews, 10(4), 475–486. doi:S1568-1637(11)00046-8 [pii] 10.1016/j.arr.2011.05.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kang, J. H., Logroscino, G., De Vivo, I., Hunter, D., & Grodstein, F. (2005).Apolipoprotein E, cardiovascular disease and cognitive function in aging women. Neurobiology of Aging, 26(4), 475–484. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2004.05.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krabbe, K. S., Mortensen, E. L., Avlund, K., Pilegaard, H., Christiansen, L., Pedersen, A. N., et al. (2009). Genetic priming of a proinflammatory profile predicts low IQ in octogenarians. Neurobiology of Aging, 30(5), 769–781.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kremen, W. S., Jacobson, K. C., Xian, H., Eisen, S. A., Waterman, B., Toomey, R., et al. (2005).Heritability of word recognition in middle-aged men varies as a function of parental education. (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, U.S. Gov’t, Non-P.H.S. Research Support, U.S. Gov’t, P.H.S. Twin Study). Behavior Genetics, 35(4), 417–433. doi:10.1007/s10519-004-3876-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lawton, M. P., & Nahemow, L. (1973). Ecology of the aging process. In C. Eisdorfer & M. P. Lawton (Eds.), The psychology of adult development and aging (pp. 619–674). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, B. K., Glass, T. A., James, B. D., Bandeen-Roche, K., & Schwartz, B. S. (2011). Neighborhood psychosocial environment, Apolipoprotein E genotype, and cognitive function in older adults. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(3), 7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S., Doulames, V., Donnelly, M., Levasseaur, J., & Shea, T. B. (2012). Environmental enrichment can prevent cognitive decline induced by dietary oxidative challenge. (Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t). Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 28(3), 497–501. doi:10.3233/JAD-2011-111562.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li Voti, P., Conte, A., Suppa, A., Iezzi, E., Bologna, M., Aniello, M. S., et al. (2011).Correlation between cortical plasticity, motor learning and BDNF genotype in healthy subjects. (Comparative Study). Experimental Brain Research. Experimentelle Hirnforschung. Experimentation Cerebrale, 212(1), 91–99. doi:10.1007/s00221-011-2700-5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liang, J., & Fairchild, T. J. (1979). Relative deprivation and perception of financial adequacy among the aged. Journal of Gerontology, 34(5), 768–759.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lichtenstein, P., Harris, J. R., Pedersen, N. L., & McClearn, G. E. (1992). Socioeconomic status and physical health, how are they related? An empirical study based on twins reared apart and twins reared together. Social Science & Medicine, 36(4), 441–450.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lof-Ohlin, Z. M., Hagnelius, N. O., & Nilsson, T. K. (2008).Relative telomere length in patients with late-onset Alzheimer’s dementia or vascular dementia. Neuroreport, 19(12), 1199–1202. doi:10.1097/WNR.0b013e3283089220 00001756-200808060-00006 [pii].

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lovden, M., Ghisletta, P., & Lindenberger, U. (2005).Social participation attenuates decline in perceptual speed in old and very old age. Psychology and Aging, 20(3), 423–434. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.20.3.423.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lubin, F. D., Roth, T. L., & Sweatt, J. D. (2008).Epigenetic regulation of BDNF gene transcription in the consolidation of fear memory. The Journal of Neuroscience, 28(42), 10576–10586. doi:28/42/10576 [pii] 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1786-08.2008.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lukens, J. N., Van Deerlin, V., Clark, C. M., Xie, S. X., & Johnson, F. B. (2009). Comparisons of telomere lengths in peripheral blood and cerebellum in Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement, 5(6), 463–469. doi:S1552-5260(09)02014-7 [pii] 10.1016/j.jalz.2009.05.666.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lupien, S. J., McEwen, B. S., Gunnar, M. R., & Heim, C. (2009).Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. (Review). Nature reviews. Neuroscience, 10(6), 434–445. doi:10.1038/nrn2639.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maekawa, M., & Watanabe, Y. (2007). Epigenetics: Relations to disease and laboratory findings. Current Medicinal Chemistry, 14(25), 2642–2653.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Markham, J. A., & Greenough, W. T. (2004). Experience-driven brain plasticity: Beyond the synapse. Neuron Glia Biology, 1(4), 351–363. doi:10.1017/s1740925×05000219.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, N. G., Rowell, D. M., & Whitfield, J. B. (1983). Do the MN and Jk systems influence environmental variability in serum lipid levels? (Comparative Study). Clinical Genetics, 24(1), 1–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin-Ruiz, C., Dickinson, H. O., Keys, B., Rowan, E., Kenny, R. A., & Von Zglinicki, T. (2006).Telomere length predicts poststroke mortality, dementia, and cognitive decline. Annals of Neurology, 60(2), 174–180. doi:10.1002/ana.20869.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mather, K. A., Jorm, A. F., Parslow, R. A., & Christensen, H. (2010).Is telomere length a biomarker of aging? A review. The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 66(2), 202–213. doi:glq180 [pii] 10.1093/gerona/glq180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matthews, K. A., & Gallo, L. C. (2011). Psychological perspectives on pathways linking socioeconomic status and physical health. (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Review). Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 501–530. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.031809.130711.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McArdle, J. J., & Prescott, C. A. (2010).Contemporary modeling of Gene-by-Environment effects in randomized multivariate longitudinal studies. Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 5(5), 606–621. doi:10.1177/1745691610383510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGue, M., & Christensen, K. (2002).The heritability of level and rate-of-change in cognitive functioning in Danish twins aged 70 years and older. Experimental Aging Research, 28(4), 435–451. doi:10.1080/03610730290080416.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Medland, S. E., Neale, M. C., Eaves, L. J., & Neale, B. M. (2009).A note on the parameterization of Purcell’s G x E model for ordinal and binary data. (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t). Behavior Genetics, 39(2), 220–229. doi:10.1007/s10519-008-9247-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, C. A., Gavin, C. F., White, J. A., Parrish, R. R., Honasoge, A., Yancey, C. R., et al. (2010).Cortical DNA methylation maintains remote memory. Nature Neuroscience, 13(6), 664–666. doi:nn.2560 [pii] 10.1038/nn.2560.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, G. E., Chen, E., Fok, A. K., Walker, H., Lim, A., Nicholls, E. F., et al. (2009). Low early-life social class leaves a biological residue manifested by decreased glucocorticoid and increased proinflammatory signaling. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106(34), 14716–14721.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, D. I., Taler, V., Davidson, P. S., & Messier, C. (2012). Measuring the impact of exercise on cognitive aging: Methodological issues. (Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Review). Neurobiology of Aging, 33(3), 622, e629–643. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2011.02.020.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mohammed, A. H., Henriksson, B. G., Söderström, S., Ebendal, T., Olsson, T., & Seckl, J. R. (1993). Environmental influences on the central nervous system and their implications for the aging rat. Behavioural Brain Research, 57(2), 183–191.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mooijaart, S. P., Sattar, N., Trompet, S., Polisecki, E., de Craen, A. J. M., Schaefer, E. J., et al. (2011). C-reactive protein and genetic variants and cognitive decline in old age: The PROSPER Study. PLoS One, 6(9), e23890.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morse, C. K. (1993). Does variability increase with age? An archival study of cognitive measures. Psychology and Aging, 8(2), 156–164.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Myers, A. J., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2012).APOE: A risk factor for multiple disorders. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry: Official Journal of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry, 20(7), 545–548. doi:10.1097/JGP.0b013e318259b9a5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neves, G., Cooke, S. F., & Bliss, T. V. P. (2008). Synaptic plasticity, memory and the hippocampus: a neural network approach to causality. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9(1), 65–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nichol, K., Deeny, S. P., Seif, J., Camaclang, K., & Cotman, C. W. (2009). Exercise improves cognition and hippocampal plasticity in APOE epsilon4 mice. (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural). Alzheimer’s & Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer’s Association, 5(4), 287–294. doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2009.02.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Obisesan, T. O., Umar, N., Paluvoi, N., & Gillum, R. F. (2012). Association of leisure-time physical activity with cognition by apolipoprotein-E genotype in persons aged 60 years and over: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES-III). (Comparative Study Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural). Clinical Interventions in Aging, 7, 35–43. doi:10.2147/CIA.S26794.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pechtel, P., & Pizzagalli, D. A. (2011).Effects of early life stress on cognitive and affective function: an integrated review of human literature. (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Review). Psychopharmacology, 214(1), 55–70. doi:10.1007/s00213-010-2009-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pedersen, N. L., Plomin, R., Nesselroade, J. R., & McClearn, G. E. (1992). A quantitative genetic analysis of cognitive abilities during the second half of the life span. Psychological Science, 3(6), 346–353.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pedersen, N. L., Reynolds, C. A., & Gatz, M. (1996). Sources of covariation among Mini-Mental State Examination scores, education, and cognitive abilities. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 51(2), P55–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pedersen, N. L., Christensen, K., Dahl, A., Finkel, D., Franz, C. E., Gatz, M., Horwitz, B. N., Johansson, B., Johnson, W., Kremen, W. S., Lyons, M. J., Malmberg, B., McGue, M., Neiderhiser, J. M., Petersen, I., & Reynolds, C. A. (2013). IGEMS: The consortium on interplay of genes and environment across multiple studies. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 16, 481–489.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petit-Turcotte, C., Aumont, N., Beffert, U., Dea, D., Herz, J., & Poirier, J. (2005).The APOE receptor apoER2 is involved in the maintenance of efficient synaptic plasticity. (Comparative Study Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Research Support, U.S. Gov’t, P.H.S.). Neurobiology of Aging, 26(2), 195–206. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2004.04.007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pfefferbaum, A., Sullivan, E. V., & Carmelli, D. (2004). Morphological changes in aging brain structures are differentially affected by time-linked environmental influences despite strong genetic stability. Neurobiology of Aging, 25(2), 175–183.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pinaud, R., Tremere, L. A., Penner, M. R., Hess, F. F., Robertson, H. A., & Currie, R. W. (2002). Complexity of sensory environment drives the expression of candidate-plasticity gene, nerve growth factor induced-A. Neuroscience, 112(3), 573–582.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., McClearn, G. E., & McGuffin, P. (2008). Behavioral Genetics (5th ed.). New York: Worth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Purcell, S. (2002).Variance components models for gene-environment interaction in twin analysis. (Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Research Support, U.S. Gov’t, P.H.S. Twin Study). Twin research: The Official Journal of the International Society for Twin Studies, 5(6), 554–571. doi:10.1375/136905202762342026.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rafnsson, S. B., Deary, I. J., Smith, F. B., Whiteman, M. C., Rumley, A., Lowe, G. D. O., & Fowkes, F. G. R. (2007). Cognitive decline and markers of inflammation and hemostasis: The Edinburgh Artery Study. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 55(5), 700–707.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raine, A. (2002). Biosocial studies of antisocial and violent behavior in children and adults: A review. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 311–326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rampon, C., Tang, Y. P., Goodhouse, J., Shimizu, E., Kyin, M., & Tsien, J. Z. (2000).Enrichment induces structural changes and recovery from nonspatial memory deficits in CA1 NMDAR1-knockout mice. (Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Research Support, U.S. Gov’t, P.H.S.). Nature Neuroscience, 3(3), 238–244. doi:10.1038/72945.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reiss, D., & Leve, L. D. (2007).Genetic expression outside the skin: Clues to mechanisms of Genotype x Environment interaction. (Research Support, N.I.H., extramural review). Development and Psychopathology, 19(4), 1005–1027. doi:10.1017/S0954579407000508.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C. A. (2008a). Genetic and environmental influences on cognitive change. In S. M. Hofer & D. F. Alwin (Eds.), The Handbook on Cognitive Aging: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C. A. (2008b). Genetics of brain aging—twin aging. In L. Squire (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Neuroscience (Network Version ed., pp. 10500): Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C. A., Finkel, D., McArdle, J. J., Gatz, M., Berg, S., & Pedersen, N. L. (2005). Quantitative genetic analysis of latent growth curve models of cognitive abilities in adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 41(1), 3–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C. A., Gatz, M., Berg, S., & Pedersen, N. L. (2007). Genotype-environment interactions: Cognitive aging and social factors. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 10(2), 241–254. doi:10.1375/twin.10.2.241.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C. A., Gatz, M., Prince, J. A., Berg, S., & Pedersen, N. L. (2010). Serum lipid levels and cognitive change in late life. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 58(3), 501–509. doi:JGS2739 [pii] 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2010.02739.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rimol, L. M., Panizzon, M. S., Fennema-Notestine, C., Eyler, L. T., Fischl, B., Franz, C. E., et al. (2010).Cortical thickness is influenced by regionally specific genetic factors. (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, U.S. Gov’t, Non-P.H.S. Twin Study). Biological Psychiatry, 67(5), 493–499. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.09.032.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, R. O., Geda, Y. E., Knopman, D. S., Cha, R. H., Pankratz, V. S., Boeve, B. F., Petersen, R. C., et al. (2012).The incidence of MCI differs by subtype and is higher in men: The Mayo Clinic Study of Aging. (Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t). Neurology, 78(5), 342–351. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182452862.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodin, J. (1986). Aging and health: Effects of sense of control. Science, 233, 1271–1276.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodin, J. (1989). Sense of control: Potentials for intervention. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 503, 29–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rowe, J. W., & Kahn, R. L. (1997). Successful aging. (Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Review). The Gerontologist, 37(4), 433–440.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (2012).Gene–environment interdependence. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9(4), 391–412. doi:10.1080/17405629.2012.661174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salthouse, T. A. (2006). Mental exercise and mental aging: Evaluating the validity of the “use it or lose it” hypothesis. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 68–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sapolsky, R. M. (2004). Social status and health in humans and other animals. Annual Review of Anthropology, 33, 393–418.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sapolsky, R. M. (2005). The influence of social hierarchy on primate health. Science, 308, 648–652.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scarmeas, N., & Stern, Y. (2003). Cognitive reserve and lifestyle. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25, 625–633.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scarpa, S., Cavallaro, R. A., D’Anselmi, F., & Fuso, A. (2006). Gene silencing through methylation: An epigenetic intervention on Alzheimer disease. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 9, 407–414.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scarr, S., & McCartney, K. (1983). How people make their own environments: A theory of genotype greater than environment effects. (Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Research Support, U.S. Gov’t, P.H.S.). Child Development, 54(2), 424–435.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schooler, C., & Caplan, L. J. (2008). Those who have, get: Social structure, environmental complexity, intellectual functioning, and self-directed orientations in the elderly. In K. W. Schaie & R. P. Abeles (Eds.), Social Structures and Aging Individuals: Continuing Challenges (Vol. 20, pp. 131-153).New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schram, M. T., Euser, S. M., de Craen, A. J., Witteman, J. C., Frölich, M., Hofman, A., Westendorp, R. G. J. (2007). Systemic markers of inflammation and cognitive decline in old age. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 55(5), 708–716.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shanahan, M. J., & Hofer, S. M. (2005). Social context in gene-environment interactions: Retrospect and prospect. (Review). The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 60(Spec No 1), 65–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shawi, M., & Autexier, C. (2008). Telomerase, senescence and ageing. (Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Review). Mechanisms of Ageing and Development, 129(1–2), 3–10. doi:10.1016/j.mad.2007.11.007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singh-Manoux, A., Marmot, M. G., & Adler, N. E. (2005).Does subjective social status predict health and change in health status better than objective status? Psychosomatic Medicine, 67(6), 855–861. doi:10.1097/01.psy.0000188434.52941.a0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Staff, R. T., Murray, A. D., Deary, I. J., & Whalley, L. J. (2004).What provides cerebral reserve? Brain, 127(5), 1191–1199. doi:10.1093/brain/awh144.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sterlemann, V., Rammes, G., Wolf, M., Liebl, C., Ganea, K., Muller, M. B., & Schmidt, M. V. (2010).Chronic social stress during adolescence induces cognitive impairment in aged mice. Hippocampus, 20(4), 540–549. doi:10.1002/hipo.20655.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, E. V., Pfefferbaum, A., Swan, G. E., & Carmelli, D. (2001). Heritability of hippocampal size in elderly twin men: Equivalent influence from genes and environment. Hippocampus, 11(6), 754–762.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Teter, B. (2004). ApoE-dependent plasticity in Alzheimer’s disease. (Review). Journal of Molecular Neuroscience, 23(3), 167–179. doi:10.1385/JMN:23:3:167.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, P., O’Callaghan, N. J., & Fenech, M. (2008). Telomere length in white blood cells, buccal cells and brain tissue and its variation with ageing and Alzheimer’s disease. Mechanisms Ageing and Development, 129(4), 183–190. doi:S0047-6374(07)00194-7 [pii] 10.1016/j.mad.2007.12.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, P. M., Cannon, T. D., Narr, K. L., van Erp, T., Poutanen, V. P., Huttunen, M., Toga, A. W. (2001).Genetic influences on brain structure. (Research Support, U.S. Gov’t, Non-P.H.S. Research Support, U.S. Gov’t, P.H.S.). Nature Neuroscience, 4(12), 1253–1258. doi:10.1038/nn758.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vaillant, G. E. (2002). Aging well: Surprising guideposts to a happier life. Boston: Little, Brown.

    Google Scholar 

  • Valdes, A. M., Deary, I. J., Gardner, J., Kimura, M., Lu, X., Spector, T. D., Cherkas, L. F. (2008). Leukocyte telomere length is associated with cognitive performance in healthy women. Neurobiology of Aging, 31(6), 986–992. doi:S0197-4580(08)00256-X [pii] 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2008.07.012

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van den Kommer, T. N., Dik, M. G., Comijs, H. C., Jonker, C., & Deeg, D. J. H. (2010). Homocysteine and inflammation: Predictors of cognitive decline in older persons? Neurobiology of Aging, 31(10), 1700–1709.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van der Sluis, S., Dolan, C. V., Neale, M. C., Boomsma, D. I., & Posthuma, D. (2006).Detecting genotype-environment Interaction in monozygotic twin data: Comparing the Jinks and Fulker test and a new test based on Marginal Maximum Likelihood estimation. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 9(3), 377–392. doi:10.1375/twin.9.3.377.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van der Sluis, S., Dolan, C. V., Neale, M. C., & Posthuma, D. (2008). A general test for gene-environment interaction in sib pair-based association analysis of quantitative traits. Behavior Genetics, 38(4), 372–389.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Sluis, S., Posthuma, D., & Dolan, C. (2012).A note on false positives and power in G × E modelling of twin data. Behavior Genetics, 42(1), 170–186. doi:10.1007/s10519-011-9480-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vera, E., & Blasco, M. A. (2012). Beyond average: Potential for measurement of short telomeres. Aging, 4(6), 379–392.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Waddington, C. H. (1942). Canalization of development and the inheritance of acquired characters. Nature, 150, 563–565.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, S. C., Oelze, B., & Schumacher, A. (2008). Age-specific epigenetic drift in late-onset Alzheimer’s disease. PLoS ONE, 3(7), e2698. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002698.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weeber, E. J., Beffert, U., Jones, C., Christian, J. M., Forster, E., Sweatt, J. D., & Herz, J. (2002).Reelin and ApoE receptors cooperate to enhance hippocampal synaptic plasticity and learning. (Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov’t Research Support, U.S. Gov’t, P.H.S.). The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 277(42), 39944–39952. doi:10.1074/jbc.M205147200.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wikgren, M., Karlsson, T., Nilbrink, T., Nordfjall, K., Hultdin, J., Sleegers, K., et al. (2010). APOE epsilon4 is associated with longer telomeres, and longer telomeres among epsilon4 carriers predicts worse episodic memory. Neurobiology of Aging, 33(2), 335–344. doi:S0197-4580(10)00115-6 [pii] 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2010.03.004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, J., Basha, M., & Zawia, N. (2008). The environment, epigenetics and amyloidogenesis. Journal of Molecular Neuroscience, 34(1), 1–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zavala, C., Gatz, M., Johansson, B., Malmberg, B., Pedersen, N. L., & Reynolds, C. A. (2013, in preparation). Perceived socioeconomic status predicts cognitive trajectories: A cohort comparison.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zekry, D., Herrmann, F. R., Irminger-Finger, I., Ortolan, L., Genet, C., Vitale, A. M., et al. (2008). Telomere length is not predictive of dementia or MCI conversion in the oldest old. Neurobiology of Aging, 31(4), 719–720. doi:S0197-4580(08)00169-3 [pii] 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2008.05.016.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zekry, D., Herrmann, F. R., Irminger-Finger, I., Graf, C., Genet, C., Vitale, A. M., et al. (2010). Telomere length and ApoE polymorphism in mild cognitive impairment, degenerative and vascular dementia. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 299(1–2), 108–111. doi:S0022-510X(10)00342-4 [pii] 10.1016/j.jns.2010.07.019.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge that a portion of this work was supported by the National Institutes of Aging (R01 AG037985).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of California-Riverside, 92521, Riverside, CA, USA

    Chandra A. Reynolds PhD

  2. School of Social Sciences, Indiana University, 4201 Grant Line Road, 47150, New Albany, IN, USA

    Deborah Finkel PhD

  3. Department of Psychology, University of California-Riverside, 92521, Riverside, CA, USA

    Catalina Zavala MA

Authors
  1. Chandra A. Reynolds PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Deborah Finkel PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Catalina Zavala MA
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Chandra A. Reynolds PhD .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. School of Social Sciences, Indiana University Southeast, Grant Line Road 4201, New Albany, 47150, Indiana, USA

    Deborah Finkel

  2. University of California at Riverside, Riverside, 92521, California, USA

    Chandra A. Reynolds

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Reynolds, C., Finkel, D., Zavala, C. (2014). Gene by Environment Interplay in Cognitive Aging. In: Finkel, D., Reynolds, C. (eds) Behavior Genetics of Cognition Across the Lifespan. Advances in Behavior Genetics, vol 1. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7447-0_6

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation