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The Time of Maturity

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Unravelling the Mystery of the Atomic Nucleus

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Abstract

A variety of new accelerators are aimed at creating beams of increasingly energetic particles. New means of detecting and analyzing particles are invented, mostly due to the development of electronic devices which become numerous, varied and flexible, the fruit of apparently unlimited imagination.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The deuteron is the heavy hydrogen isotope consisting of a proton and a neutron; see p. 233.

  2. 2.

    According to the Einstein formula E = mc 2, the mass of a proton, which is accelerated to an energy of 10 MeV, increases by about 1%.

  3. 3.

    See p. 275.

  4. 4.

    See p. 275.

  5. 5.

    See p. 278.

  6. 6.

    The klystron was invented in 1937 by Russel and Sigurd Varian to improve the radar technologies. It is a special vacuum tube used as an amplifier at microwave and radio frequencies. The magnetron is a high-powered vacuum tube that generates higher-frequency microwaves using the interaction of a beam of electrons with a constant magnetic field. It was invented in 1940 by the British physicists John Randall and Harry Boot. It allowed to locate airplanes by radar with a better precision.

  7. 7.

    See p. 273.

  8. 8.

    See pages 64, 66, 69, 188.

  9. 9.

    See p. 192.

  10. 10.

    See p. 206.

  11. 11.

    See p. 286.

  12. 12.

    See p. 261.

  13. 13.

    See p. 282.

  14. 14.

    See p. 318.

  15. 15.

    This part of the Mendeleev table, as it was conceived in 1938, is shown on page 331.

  16. 16.

    See p. 107.

  17. 17.

    Recall that the “number of quanta,” also called the principal quantum number n, determines the size and the energy of the electron orbit. See p. 116 and p. 107 for the theory of lanthanides.

  18. 18.

    See p. 112.

  19. 19.

    The periodic table, or table of Mendeleev, in its present form, is shown at the end of this book.

  20. 20.

    See p. 135.

  21. 21.

    See p. 69.

  22. 22.

    See p. 8.

  23. 23.

    fm denotes a femtometer, that is, of 10 − 15 m. It is a natural unit on the nuclear scale: the radius of the oxygen nucleus is about 3 fm, and that of lead about 6.5 fm.

  24. 24.

    See p. 254.

  25. 25.

    See p. 258.

  26. 26.

    See p. 259.

  27. 27.

    See p. 282.

  28. 28.

    But recall that, even if the force does not depend on the orientation of the spins, the Pauli exclusion principle will favor certain spin orientations (see p. 246). Quantum mechanics is most surprising.

  29. 29.

    But not completely identical because the repulsive Coulomb force acts on protons but not on neutrons

  30. 30.

    See p. 20.

  31. 31.

    See p. 233.

  32. 32.

    See p. 258.

  33. 33.

    This shows how careful one must be when using classical terms to describe quantum systems. The Pauli principle, which forbids two identical particles (e.g., two neutrons or two protons) to be in the same state, or, equivalently, to bear the same quantum numbers, has no analogue in classical mechanics. Classical mechanics cannot even account for the experimentally verified fact that there exist identical composite objects, such as, for example, identical atoms. Classical electron orbits of two atoms would never be exactly the same!

  34. 34.

    See p. 329.

  35. 35.

    Nuclei, which have an even number of protons and an even number of neutrons, have a spin zero and a zero magnetic moment.

  36. 36.

    A femtometer (fm) is equal to 10 − 15 m or 10 − 13 cm. Nuclear sizes vary from 1 fm for the proton, the nucleus of hydrogen, to about 7 fm for the radius of the lead nucleus.

  37. 37.

    The word “imaginary” is meant here in the mathematical sense where a complex number has a real and imaginary part.

  38. 38.

    The Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, had been created during the war, in order to separate uranium 235, required to make an atomic bomb.

  39. 39.

    The National Bureau of Standards is a governmental agency which, since its foundation in 1901, has the role of “working with industry in order to develop and apply technology, measurements and standards” in the interest of the nation. In 1988, it became the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).

  40. 40.

    See p. 313.

  41. 41.

    See p. 313.

  42. 42.

    See p. 15.

  43. 43.

    See p. 128.

  44. 44.

    See p. 182 and p. 206.

  45. 45.

    See p. 232.

  46. 46.

    See p. 114.

  47. 47.

    See p. 182.

  48. 48.

    See p. 243.

  49. 49.

    The term X-rays is usually used to denote photons (particles of light) with energies which range from a dozen to hundreds of thousands of electron volts (eV). The term γ-rays denotes photons with higher energies. The exact frontier is not clearly defined, and one often speaks of hard or soft X-rays. In the entry photon of the glossary, a table is given listing the names given to various radiations according to their energy.

  50. 50.

    See p. 6.

  51. 51.

    More precisely, a cross section ♢.

  52. 52.

    See p. 243.

  53. 53.

    See p. ??.

  54. 54.

    See p. 337.

  55. 55.

    See p. 343.

  56. 56.

    See p. 323.

  57. 57.

    See p. 323.

  58. 58.

    By comparison, the major axis of a rugby football is 50% larger than the minor axis.

  59. 59.

    The nuclei which have an even number of both protons and neutrons are called even–even nuclei.

  60. 60.

    Gertrude Scharff is a German physicist born in Mannheim in 1911. She obtained her Ph.D. in Munich in 1935 after which she was obliged to flee Nazi Germany because she was Jewish. She emigrated to England where she met Maurice Goldhaber, an exiled Austrian Jew. They married, and in 1939, they emigrated to the United States where they both had exceptional careers.

  61. 61.

    See p. 310.

  62. 62.

    See p. 311.

  63. 63.

    See p. 5.

  64. 64.

    See p. 136 and p. 215.

  65. 65.

    See p. 249.

  66. 66.

    A heavy nucleus, such as lead 208, contains 208 nucleons within a sphere with a radius equal to about 6.6 femtometers (6. 6 ×10 − 13 cm). The volume is thus 1200 cubic femtometers, and the average density of nucleons is about \(\frac{208} {1200} = 0.17\) nucleons per cubic femtometer.

  67. 67.

    See p. 313.

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Fernandez, B. (2013). The Time of Maturity. In: Unravelling the Mystery of the Atomic Nucleus. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-4181-6_7

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