Abstract
Radiation therapy is a critical component in the treatment of children with central nervous system tumors. As the use of this modality continues to increase in complexity and sophistication, it is imperative for the neurosurgeon to understand the additional challenges that the use of radiotherapy may pose in both surgical and nonsurgical management. Operating after radiation to the surgical site may increase infection rate, decrease probability of wound healing, increase rate of intraoperative complications, distort typical anatomy, and alter operative approach. Radiation therapy can also result in many long-term sequelae, including radiation necrosis, vasculopathy, neurocognitive deficits, and secondary malignancies, many of which may require additional workup and surgical intervention. Such risks must be understood by all members of the team when developing management strategies in these patients, and a multidisciplinary approach is vital. This chapter discusses these topics and also reviews future directions for radiation therapy, including technologic advances, image guidance, and large-scale informatics efforts. Also promising is the role of next-generation sequencing in better understanding nuances in tumor biology and thus radiation sensitivity. Advanced sequencing efforts may also help predict susceptibility to sequelae of radiotherapy in individual patients.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Ahmed KA, Chinnaiyan P, Fulp WJ, Eschrich S, Torres-Roca JF, Caudell JJ (2015) The radiosensitivity index predicts for overall survival in glioblastoma. Oncotarget 6:34414–34422
Armstrong GT, Liu Q, Yasui Y, Huang S, Ness KK, Leisenring W et al (2009a) Long-term outcomes among adult survivors of childhood central nervous system malignancies in the childhood cancer Survivor study. J Natl Cancer Inst 101:946–958
Armstrong GT, Liu Q, Yasui Y, Neglia JP, Leisenring W, Robison LL et al (2009b) Late mortality among 5-year survivors of childhood cancer: a summary from the childhood cancer Survivor study. J Clin Oncol 27:2328–2338
Baker GA, Cizik AM, Bransford RJ, Bellabarba C, Konodi MA, Chapman JR et al (2012) Risk factors for unintended durotomy during spine surgery: a multivariate analysis. Spine J 12:121–126
Ball WS Jr, Prenger EC, Ballard ET (1992) Neurotoxicity of radio/chemotherapy in children: pathologic and MR correlation. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 13:761–776
Bouchard JA, Koka A, Bensusan JS, Stevenson S, Emery SE (1994) Effects of irradiation on posterior spinal fusions. A rabbit model. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 19:1836–1841
Bowers DC, Mulne AF, Reisch JS, Elterman RD, Munoz L, Booth T et al (2002) Nonperioperative strokes in children with central nervous system tumors. Cancer 94:1094–1101
Bowers DC, Liu Y, Leisenring W, McNeil E, Stovall M, Gurney JG et al (2006) Late-occurring stroke among long-term survivors of childhood leukemia and brain tumors: a report from the childhood cancer survivor study. J Clin Oncol 24:5277–5282
Brinkman TM, Krasin MJ, Liu W, Armstrong GT, Ojha RP, Sadighi ZS et al (2016) Long-term neurocognitive functioning and social attainment in adult survivors of pediatric CNS tumors: results from the St Jude lifetime cohort study. J Clin Oncol 34:1358–1367
Burgess L, Pulsifer M, Yeap BY, Grieco J, Weinstein ER, MacDonald S et al (2016) Estimated IQ (EIQ) systematically overestimates full-scale IQ (FSIQ) in survivors irradiated for pediatric brain tumors. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 96:S232
Butler RW, Copeland DR, Fairclough DL, Mulhern RK, Katz ER, Kazak AE et al (2008) A multicenter, randomized clinical trial of a cognitive remediation program for childhood survivors of a pediatric malignancy. J Consult Clin Psychol 76:367–378
Carangelo B, Cerillo A, Mariottini A, Peri G, Rubino G, Mourmouras V et al (2010) Therapeutic strategy of late cerebral radionecrosis. A retrospective study of 21 cases. J Neurosurg Sci 54:21–28
Chen JR, Xu HZ, Ding JB, Qin ZY (2015) RT after hyperbaric oxygenation in malignant gliomas. Curr Med Res Opin 31:1977–1984
Chetty IJ, Martel MK, Jaffray DA, Benedict SH, Hahn SM, Berbeco R et al (2015) Technology for innovation in radiation oncology. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 93:485–492
Cole PD, Finkelstein Y, Stevenson KE, Blonquist TM, Vijayanathan V, Silverman LB et al (2015) Polymorphisms in genes related to oxidative stress are associated with inferior cognitive function after therapy for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Clin Oncol 33:2205–2211
Compas BE (2014) Neuroplasticity-based cognitive remediation for pediatric brain tumor survivors (CRPBT). ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02129712. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02129712?term=NCT02129712&rank=1
Compter I, Leijenaar R (2016) Radiomics for prediction of survival in GBM (radiomics). ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02666066. Sponsor: Maastricht Radiation Oncology. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02666066?term=NCT02666066&rank=1
de Jonge T, Slullitel H, Dubousset J, Miladi L, Wicart P, Illes T (2005) Late-onset spinal deformities in children treated by laminectomy and RT for malignant tumours. Eur Spine J 14:765–771
Demura S, Kawahara N, Murakami H, Nambu K, Kato S, Yoshioka K et al (2009) Surgical site infection in spinal metastasis: risk factors and countermeasures. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 34:635–639
Drezner N, Hardy KK, Wells E, Vezina G, Ho CY, Packer RJ et al (2016) Treatment of pediatric cerebral radiation necrosis: a systematic review. J Neurooncol 130:141–148
Fager M, Toma-Dasu I, Kirk M, Dolney D, Diffenderfer ES, Vapiwala N et al (2015) Linear energy transfer painting with proton therapy: a means of reducing radiation doses with equivalent clinical effectiveness. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 91:1057–1064
Fajardo LF (1993) Basic mechanisms and general morphology of radiation injury. Semin Roentgenol 28:297–302
Fouladi M, Langston J, Mulhern R, Jones D, Xiong X, Yang J et al (2000) Silent lacunar lesions detected by magnetic resonance imaging of children with brain tumors: a late sequela of therapy. J Clin Oncol 18:824–831
Gagiano CA, Muller PG, Fourie J, Le Roux JF (1989) The therapeutic efficacy of paroxetine: (a) an open study in patients with major depression not responding to antidepressants; a double-blind comparison with amitriptyline in depressed outpatients. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 350:130–131
Gajjar A, Robinson G (2013) A clinical and molecular risk-directed therapy for newly diagnosed medulloblastoma. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT01878617. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01878617?term=NCT01878617&rank=1
Gajjar A, Pfister SM, Taylor MD, Gilbertson RJ (2014) Molecular insights into pediatric brain tumors have the potential to transform therapy. Clin Cancer Res 20:5630–5640
Ghogawala Z, Mansfield FL, Borges LF (2001) Spinal radiation before surgical decompression adversely affects outcomes of surgery for symptomatic metastatic spinal cord compression. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 26:818–824
Glover M, Smerdon GR, Andreyev HJ, Benton BE, Bothma P, Firth O et al (2016) Hyperbaric oxygen for patients with chronic bowel dysfunction after pelvic RT (HOT2): a randomised, double-blind, sham-controlled phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol 17:224–233
Grill J, Couanet D, Cappelli C, Habrand JL, Rodriguez D, Sainte-Rose C et al (1999) Radiation-induced cerebral vasculopathy in children with neurofibromatosis and optic pathway glioma. Ann Neurol 45:393–396
Guan F, Bronk L, Titt U, Lin SH, Mirkovic D, Kerr MD et al (2015) Spatial mapping of the biologic effectiveness of scanned particle beams: towards biologically optimized particle therapy. Sci Rep 5:9850
Gutin PH, Leibel SA, Sheline GE (1991) Radiation injury of the nervous system. Raven, New York
Hardy KK, Willard VW, Allen TM, Bonner MJ (2013) Working memory training in survivors of pediatric cancer: a randomized pilot study. Psychooncology 22:1856–1865
Harrod-Kim P, Kadkhodayan Y, Derdeyn CP, Cross DT 3rd, Moran CJ (2005) Outcomes of carotid angioplasty and stenting for radiation-associated stenosis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 26:1781–1788
Haubner F, Ohmann E, Pohl F, Strutz J, Gassner HG (2012) Wound healing after RT: review of the literature. Radiat Oncol 7:162
Herskind C, Bamberg M, Rodemann HP (1998) The role of cytokines in the development of normal-tissue reactions after RT. Strahlenther Onkol 174(Suppl 3):12–15
Hom DB, Adams G, Koreis M, Maisel R (1999) Choosing the optimal wound dressing for irradiated soft tissue wounds. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 121:591–598
Hou J, Kshettry VR, Selman WR, Bambakidis NC (2013) Peritumoral brain edema in intracranial meningiomas: the emergence of vascular endothelial growth factor-directed therapy. Neurosurg Focus 35:E2
Hsu F (2015) Neurocognitive outcome of conformal WBRT w/wo hippocampal avoidance for brain metastases. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02393131. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02393131?term=NCT02393131&rank=1
Hunt TK, Thakral KK (1984) Cellular control of repair. In: Hunt T, Heppenstall RB, Pines E, Rovee D (eds) Soft and hard tissue repair: biological and clinical aspects. Praeger, New York, pp 3–19
Indelicato DJ, Flampouri S, Rotondo RL, Bradley JA, Morris CG, Aldana PR et al (2014) Incidence and dosimetric parameters of pediatric brainstem toxicity following proton therapy. Acta Oncol 53:1298–1304
Kickingereder P, Burth S, Wick A, Gotz M, Eidel O, Schlemmer HP et al (2016) Radiomic profiling of glioblastoma: identifying an imaging predictor of patient survival with improved performance over established clinical and radiologic risk models. Radiology 280:880–889
Kondziolka D, Kano H, Kanaan H, Madhok R, Mathieu D, Flickinger JC et al (2009) Stereotactic radiosurgery for radiation-induced meningiomas. Neurosurgery 64:463–469.; discussion 469–470
Kupelian P, Sonke JJ (2014) Magnetic resonance-guided adaptive RT: a solution to the future. Semin Radiat Oncol 24:227–232
Ladra MM, Edgington SK, Mahajan A, Grosshans D, Szymonifka J, Khan F et al (2014) A dosimetric comparison of proton and intensity modulated RT in pediatric rhabdomyosarcoma patients enrolled on a prospective phase II proton study. Radiother Oncol 113:77–83
Ladra MM, Wang KK, Terezakis SA (2016) Pencil-beam scanning for pediatric rhabdomyosarcoma: promise and precautions. Pediatr Blood Cancer 63:1698–1699
Leibundgut K (2016) Efficacy of cognitive and physical trainings in pediatric cancer survivors. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02749877. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02749877?term=NCT02749877&rank=1
Lew SM, Morgan JN, Psaty E, Lefton DR, Allen JC, Abbott R (2006) Cumulative incidence of radiation-induced cavernomas in long-term survivors of medulloblastoma. J Neurosurg 104:103–107
Maluf FC, DeAngelis LM, Raizer JJ, Abrey LE (2002) High-grade gliomas in patients with prior systemic malignancies. Cancer 94:3219–3224
Marks JE, Baglan RJ, Prassad SC, Blank WF (1981) Cerebral radionecrosis: incidence and risk in relation to dose, time, fractionation and volume. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 7:243–252
Mayer R, Sminia P (2008) Reirradiation tolerance of the human brain. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 70:1350–1360
Merchant TE, Happersett L, Finlay JL, Leibel SA (1999) Preliminary results of conformal RT for medulloblastoma. Neuro-Oncology 1:177–187
Merchant TE, Sharma S, Xiong X, Wu S, Conklin H (2014) Effect of cerebellum radiation dosimetry on cognitive outcomes in children with infratentorial ependymoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 90:547–553
Merchant TE, Hua CH, Sabin ND, Ezell SE, Madey MA, Wu S et al (2016) Necrosis, vasculopathy, and neurological complications after proton therapy for childhood craniopharyngioma: results from a prospective trial and a photon cohort comparison. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 96:S120–S121
Moore IM, Hockenberry MJ, Anhalt C, McCarthy K, Krull KR (2012) Mathematics intervention for prevention of neurocognitive deficits in childhood leukemia. Pediatr Blood Cancer 59:278–284
Moteabbed M, Yock TI, Depauw N, Madden TM, Kooy HM, Paganetti H (2016) Impact of spot size and beam-shaping devices on the treatment plan quality for pencil beam scanning proton therapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 95:190–198
Mulhern RK, Merchant TE, Gajjar A, Reddick WE, Kun LE (2004) Late neurocognitive sequelae in survivors of brain tumours in childhood. Lancet Oncol 5:399–408
Murphy ES, Xie H, Merchant TE, Yu JS, Chao ST, Suh JH (2015) Review of cranial RT-induced vasculopathy. J Neurooncol 122:421–429
Northcott PA, Shih DJ, Peacock J, Garzia L, Morrissy AS, Zichner T et al (2012) Subgroup-specific structural variation across 1,000 medulloblastoma genomes. Nature 488:49–56
Otsuka NY, Hey L, Hall JE (1998) Postlaminectomy and postirradiation kyphosis in children and adolescents. Clin Orthop Relat Res 354:189–194
Packer RJ, Meadows AT, Rorke LB, Goldwein JL, D’Angio G (1987) Long-term sequelae of cancer treatment on the central nervous system in childhood. Med Pediatr Oncol 15:241–253
Paganetti H (2012) Range uncertainties in proton therapy and the role of Monte Carlo simulations. Phys Med Biol 57:R99–117
Perkins S (2015) Computer-based neurocognitive assessment in children with central nervous system tumors receiving proton beam RT. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02559752. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02559752?term=NCT02559752&rank=1
Price RA, Birdwell DA (1978) The central nervous system in childhood leukemia. III. Mineralizing microangiopathy and dystrophic calcification. Cancer 42:717–728
Rahmathulla G, Recinos PF, Valerio JE, Chao S, Barnett GH (2012) Laser interstitial thermal therapy for focal cerebral radiation necrosis: a case report and literature review. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 90:192–200
Rahmathulla G, Marko NF, Weil RJ (2013) Cerebral radiation necrosis: a review of the pathobiology, diagnosis and management considerations. J Clin Neurosci 20:485–502
Resnick D (1995) Diangosis of bone and joint disorders, 3rd edn. Saunders, Philadelphia
Reulen RC, Winter DL, Frobisher C, Lancashire ER, Stiller CA, Jenney ME et al (2010) Long-term cause-specific mortality among survivors of childhood cancer. JAMA 304:172–179
Schaffer M, Weimer W, Wider S, Stulten C, Bongartz M, Budach W et al (2002) Differential expression of inflammatory mediators in radiation-impaired wound healing. J Surg Res 107:93–100
Shi HP, Most D, Efron DT, Tantry U, Fischel MH, Barbul A (2001) The role of iNOS in wound healing. Surgery 130:225–229
Squatrito M, Brennan CW, Helmy K, Huse JT, Petrini JH, Holland EC (2010) Loss of ATM/Chk2/p53 pathway components accelerates tumor development and contributes to radiation resistance in gliomas. Cancer Cell 18:619–629
Strenger V, Sovinz P, Lackner H, Dornbusch HJ, Lingitz H, Eder HG et al (2008) Intracerebral cavernous hemangioma after cranial irradiation in childhood. Incidence and risk factors. Strahlenther Onkol 184:276–280
Tartaglino LM, Rao VM, Markiewicz DA (1994) Imaging of radiation changes in the head and neck. Semin Roentgenol 29:81–91
Tirode F, Surdez D, Ma X, Parker M, Le Deley MC, Bahrami A et al (2014) Genomic landscape of Ewing sarcoma defines an aggressive subtype with co-association of STAG2 and TP53 mutations. Cancer Discov 4:1342–1353
Torres-Roca JF (2012) A molecular assay of tumor radiosensitivity: a roadmap towards biology-based personalized RT. Per Med 9:547–557
Tsui K, Gajjar A, Li C, Srivastava D, Broniscer A, Wetmore C et al (2015) Subsequent neoplasms in survivors of childhood central nervous system tumors: risk after modern multimodal therapy. Neuro-Oncology 17:448–456
Umansky F, Shoshan Y, Rosenthal G, Fraifeld S, Spektor S (2008) Radiation-induced meningioma. Neurosurg Focus 24:E7
Valk PE, Dillon WP (1991) Radiation injury of the brain. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 12:45–62
Wen Q, Xiong W, He J, Zhang S, Du X, Liu S et al (2016) Fusion cytokine IL-2-GMCSF enhances anticancer immune responses through promoting cell-cell interactions. J Transl Med 14:41
Yard BD, Adams DJ, Chie EK, Tamayo P, Battaglia JS, Gopal P et al (2016) A genetic basis for the variation in the vulnerability of cancer to DNA damage. Nat Commun 7:11428
Yock TI, Tarbell NJ, Yeap BY, Ebb DH, Weyman E, Eaton BR et al (2016) Proton beam therapy for medulloblastoma – author’s reply. Lancet Oncol 17:e174–e175
Yokogawa N, Murakami H, Demura S, Kato S, Yoshioka K, Hayashi H et al (2014) Perioperative complications of total en bloc spondylectomy: adverse effects of preoperative irradiation. PLoS One 9:e98797
Yokogawa N, Murakami H, Demura S, Kato S, Yoshioka K, Yamamoto M et al (2015) Effects of radiation on spinal dura mater and surrounding tissue in mice. PLoS One 10:e0133806
Yu SC, Zou WX, Soo YO, Wang L, Hui JW, Chan AY et al (2014) Evaluation of carotid angioplasty and stenting for radiation-induced carotid stenosis. Stroke 45:1402–1407
Zide BM, Wisoff JH, Epstein FJ (1987) Closure of extensive and complicated laminectomy wounds. Operative technique. J Neurosurg 67:59–64
Zou P, Conklin HM, Scoggins MA, Li Y, Li X, Jones MM et al (2016) Functional MRI in medulloblastoma survivors supports prophylactic reading intervention during tumor treatment. Brain Imaging Behav 10:258–271
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Section Editor information
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this entry
Cite this entry
Lee, R.P., Lucas, J.T., Tinkle, C.L., Merchant, T.E., Boop, F.A. (2020). Pediatric Radiotherapy: Surgical Considerations, Sequelae, and Future Directions. In: Di Rocco, C., Pang, D., Rutka, J. (eds) Textbook of Pediatric Neurosurgery. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72168-2_152
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72168-2_152
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-72167-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-72168-2
eBook Packages: MedicineReference Module Medicine