Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Agroecological Basis for Managing Biotic Constraints

  • Reference work entry
Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology

  • 349 Accesses

Definition of the Subject

Agroecology provides guidelines to develop diversified agroecosystems that take advantage of the effects of the integration of plant and animal biodiversity . From a management perspective, the agroecological objective is to provide balanced environments, sustained yields, biologically mediated soil fertility, and natural pest regulation through the design of diversified agroecosystems and the use of low-input technologies.

Introduction

Constraints to agricultural production may be classified into four basic categories: abiotic, biotic, socioeconomic, and those related to crop management. The origin and importance of each constraint, their associated losses, and opportunities to alleviate them will vary for the crop, the input and management levels employed, and the environmental and socioeconomic characteristics of the broader farming system in which the crop is grown. Agronomists and plant protectionists...

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 6,999.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 549.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Abbreviations

Abiotic factor:

A nonliving component of the environment, such as soil, nutrients, light, fire, or moisture.

Adaptation:

(1) Any aspect of an organism or its parts that is of value in allowing the organism to withstand the conditions of the environment. (2) The evolutionary process by which a species’ genome and phenotypic characteristics change over time in response to changes in the environment.

Agroecology:

The science of applying ecological concepts and principles to the design and management of sustainable agroecosystems.

Agroecosystem:

An agricultural system understood as an ecosystem.

Agroforestry:

The practice of including trees in crop- or animal-production agroecosystems.

Allelopathy:

An interference interaction in which a plant releases into the environment a compound that inhibits or stimulates the growth or development of other plants.

Beneficial insects – arthropods:

Beneficial insects are predators, parasites, or competitors of insect pests, helping to regulate pest populations without harm to crops.

Biomass:

The mass of all the organic matter in a given system at a given point in time.

Biotic factor:

An aspect of the environment related to organisms or their interactions.

Competition:

An interaction in which two organisms remove from the environment a limited resource that both require, and both organisms are harmed in the process. Competition can occur between members of the same species and between members of different species.

Consumer:

An organism that ingests other organisms (or their parts or products) to obtain its food energy.

Decomposer:

A fungal or bacterial organism that obtains its nutrients and food energy by breaking down dead organic and fecal matter and absorbing some of its nutrient content.

Disturbance:

An event or short-term process that alters a community or ecosystem by changing the relative population levels of at least some of the component species.

Diversity:

(1) The number or variety of species in a location, community, ecosystem, or agroecosystem. (2) The degree of heterogeneity of the biotic components of an ecosystem or agroecosystem (see ecological diversity).

Domestication:

The process of altering, through directed selection, the genetic makeup of a species so as to increase the species’ usefulness to humans.

Dominant species:

The species with the greatest impact on both the biotic and abiotic components of its community.

Ecosystem:

A functional system of complementary relations between living organisms and their environment within a certain physical area.

Generalist:

A species that tolerates a broad range of environmental conditions; a generalist has a broad ecological niche.

Habitat:

The particular environment, characterized by a specific set of environmental conditions, in which a given species occurs.

Herbaceous:

Nonwoody.

Herbivore:

An animal that feeds exclusively or mainly on plants. Herbivores convert plant biomass into animal biomass.

Host:

An organism that provides food or shelter for another organism.

Intercropping:

Planting more than one crop in a field using a regular pattern that interleaves each crop in some pattern. A form of polyculture.

Integrated pest management:

Pest control using an array of complementary approaches including natural predators, parasites, pest-resistant varieties, pesticides, and other biological and environmental control practices.

Legume:

A plant in the Leguminosae (Fabaceae) family. Most species in this family can fix nitrogen.

Microclimate:

The environmental conditions in the immediate vicinity of an organism.

Multi-trophic relationships:

The organization of feeding and energy-transfer relationships that determine the path of energy flow through a community or ecosystem that involves organisms of different levels.

Mycorrhizae:

Symbiotic fungal connections with plant roots through which a fungal organism provides water and nutrients to a plant and the plant provides sugars to the fungi.

Organic matter:

Material containing molecules based on Carbon, usually referring to soil organic matter.

Parasite:

An organism that uses another organism for food and thus harms the other organism.

Parasitism:

An interaction in which one organism feeds on another organism, harming (but generally not killing) it.

Parasitoid:

A parasite that feeds on predators or other parasites.

Patchiness:

A measurement of the diversity of successional stages present in a specific area.

Patchy landscape:

A landscape with a diversity of successional stages or habitat types.

Phenotype:

The physical expression of the genotype; an organism’s physical characteristics. Phenology is the study of periodic plant and animal life-cycle events and how these are influenced by seasonal and interannual variations in climate

Polyculture:

Cropping systems in which different crop species are grown in mixtures in the same field at the same time.

Predation:

An interaction in which one organism kills and consumes another.

Predator:

An animal that consumes other animals to satisfy its nutritive requirements.

Primary production:

The amount of light energy converted into plant biomass in a system.

Productivity:

The ecological processes and structures in an agroecosystem that enable production.

Seed bank:

The total seed presence in the soil.

Shifting agriculture:

Farming systems that alternate periods of annual cropping with extended fallow periods. “Slash and burn” systems of shifting cultivation use fire to clear fallow areas for cropping.

Species richness:

The number of different species in a community or ecosystem.

Successional stages:

A condition characterized by a particular community of a succession, which is the process by which one community gives way to another.

Bibliography

  1. Almekinders CJM, Fresco LO, Struik PC (1995) The need to study and manage variation in agro ecosystems. Neth J Agric Sci 43:127–142

    Google Scholar 

  2. Gliessman SR (1998) Agroecology: ecological processes in sustainable agriculture. Ann Arbor Press, Michigan

    Google Scholar 

  3. Altieri MA (1999) The ecological role of biodiversity in agroecosystems. Agric Ecosyst Environ 74:19–31

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Pretty JN (1994) Regenerating agriculture. Earthscan, London

    Google Scholar 

  5. Altieri MA, Nicholls CI (1999) Biodiversity, ecosystem function and insect pest management in agroecosystems. In: Collins WW, Qualset CO (eds) Biodiversity in agroecosystems. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 69–84

    Google Scholar 

  6. Altieri MA (2002) Agroecology: the science of natural resource management for poor farmers in marginal environments. Agric Ecosyst Environ 93:1–24

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Pretty J, Hine R (2000) Feeding the world with sustainable agriculture: a summary of new evidence: final report from “Safe-World” Research Project. University of Essex, Colchester

    Google Scholar 

  8. Sumner DR (1982) Crop rotation and plant productivity. In: Recheigl M (ed) CRC handbook of agricultural productivity, vol I. CRC Press, Boca Raton

    Google Scholar 

  9. Francis CA (1986) Multiple cropping systems. Macmillan, New York

    Google Scholar 

  10. Vandermeer J (1989) The ecology of intercropping. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge/London

    Book  Google Scholar 

  11. Nair PKR (1982) Soil productivity aspects of agroforestry. ICRAF, Nairobi

    Google Scholar 

  12. Pearson CJ, Ison RL (1987) Agronomy of grassland systems. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  13. Finch CV, Sharp CW (1976) Cover crops in California orchards and vineyards. USDA Soil Conservation Service, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  14. Altieri MA, Rosset P (1996) Agroecology and the conversion of large-scale conventional systems to sustainable management. Int J Environ Stud 50:165–185

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Chambers R (1983) Rural development: putting the last first. Longmans Scientific and Technical/Wiley, Essex, England/New York, p 218

    Google Scholar 

  16. Vasey DE (1992) An ecological history of agriculture 10, 000 BC–AD 10, 000. Iowa State University Press, Ames

    Google Scholar 

  17. Jorgensen SE, Nielsen SN (1996) Application of ecological engineering principles in agriculture. Ecol Eng 7:373–381

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Hobbs RJ, Salvatore A, Aronson J, Baron JS, Bridgewater P, Cramer VA, Epstein PR, Ewel JJ, Klink CA, Lugo D, Norton DO, Richardson DM, Sanderson ES, Valladares F, Villa M, Zamora R, Zobel M (2006) Novel ecosystems: theoretical and management aspects of the new ecological world order. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 15:1–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Cox GW, Atkins MD (1979) Agricultural ecology: an analysis of world food production systems. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, p 731

    Google Scholar 

  20. Cox CM, Garrett KA, Bockus WW (2005) Meeting the challenge of disease management in perennial grain systems. Renewable Agric Food Syst 20:15–24

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Carrol CR, Vandermeer JH, Rosset PM (1990) Agroecology. McGraw-Hill, New York

    Google Scholar 

  22. Shennan C (2008) Biotic interactions, ecological knowledge and agriculture. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 363:717–739

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Ghersa CM, Roush ML, Radosevich SR, Cordray SM (1994) Coevolution of agroecosystems and weed management. Bioscience 44:85–94

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Settle WH, Ariawan H, Astuti EH, Cahyana W, Hakim AL, Hindayana D, Lestari AS (1996) Managing tropical rice pests through conservation of generalist natural enemies and alternative prey. Ecology 77:1975–1988

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Fitter AH, Gilligan CA, Hollingworth K, Kleczkowski A, Twyman RM, Pitchford JW (2005) Biodiversity and ecosystem function in soil. Funct Ecol 19:369–377

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Hooper DU, Chapin FS III, Ewel JJ, Hector A, Inchausti P, Lavorel S, Lawton JH, Lodge DM, Loreau M, Naeem S, Schmid B, Setälä H, Symstad AJ, Vandermeer J, Wardle DA (2005) Effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning: a consensus of current knowledge. Ecol Monogr 75:3–35

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Andow DA (1991) Yield loss to arthropods in vegetationally diverse agroecosystems. Environ Entomol 20:1228–1235

    Google Scholar 

  28. Andow DA (1991) Vegetational diversity and arthropod population response. Annu Rev Entomol 36:561–586

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Brown BJ, Ewel JJ (1987) Herbivory in complex and simple tropical successional ecosystems. Ecology 68:108–116

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Prieur-Richard AH, Lavorel S, Linhart YB, Dos Santos A (2002) Plant diversity, herbivory and resistance of a plant community to invasion in Mediterranean annual communities. Oecologia 130:96–104

    Google Scholar 

  31. Ghersa CM, León RJC (1999) Succesional changes in the agroecosystems of the rolling pampas. In: Walker LR (ed) Ecosystems of disturbed ground. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 487–502

    Google Scholar 

  32. Radosevich SR, Holt JS, Ghersa CM (2007) Ecology of weeds and invasive plants. Wiley, New York

    Book  Google Scholar 

  33. Baudry J, Poggio SL, Laurent C (2010) Agricultural landscape changes through globalisation and biodiversity effects. In: Primdahl J, Swaffied S (eds) Globalisation and agricultural landscapes: change patterns and policy trends in developed countries. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp 58–70

    Google Scholar 

  34. Edwards CA (1990) The importance of integration in sustainable agricultural systems. In: Edwards CA, Lal R, Madden P, Miller RH, House G (eds) Sustainable agricultural systems. Soil and Water Conservation Society, Ankeny, pp 249–264

    Google Scholar 

  35. Altieri MA (1987) Agroecology: the scientific basis of alternative agriculture. Westview, Boulder

    Google Scholar 

  36. Freckleton RP, Watkinson AR (2002) Are weed population dynamics chaotic? J Appl Ecol 39:699–707

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Weinig C (2005) Rapid evolutionary responses to selection in heterogeneous environments among agricultural and nonagricultural weeds. Int J Plant Sci 166:641–647

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Mundt CC (2002) Use of multiline cultivars and cultivar mixtures for disease management. Annu Rev Phytopathol 40:381–400

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Shennan C (2008) Biotic interactions in agroecosystems. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 363:717–739

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Welbaum GE, Sturz AV, Dong ZM, Nowak J (2004) Managing soil microorganisms to improve productivity of agro-ecosystems. Crit Rev Plant Sci 23:175–193

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Gosling P, Hodge A, Goodlass G, Bending GD (2006) Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and organic farming. Agric Ecosyst Environ 113:17–35

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Anderson RL (2004) Sequencing crops to minimize selection pressure for weeds in the central great plains. Weed Technol 18:157–164

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Moonen AC, Bàrberi P (2008) Functional biodiversity: an agroecosystem approach. Agric Ecosyst Environ 127:7–21

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Mead R, Riley J, Dear K, Singh SP (1986) Stability comparison of intercropping and monocropping systems. Biometrics 42:253–266

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Zhu Y, Fen H, Wang Y, Li Y, Chen J, Hu L, Mundt CC (2000) Genetic diversity and disease control in rice. Nature 406:718–772

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Tscharntke T, Klein AM, Kruess A, Steffan-Dewenter I, Thies C (2005) Landscape perspectives on agricultural intensification and biodiversity—ecosystem service management. Ecol Lett 8:857–874

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Shennan C, Pisani Gareau T, Sirrine JR (2004) Agroecological approaches to pest management in the US. In: Pretty J (ed) The pesticide detox, solutions for safe agriculture. Earthscan, London, pp 193–211

    Google Scholar 

  48. Wilby A, Thomas MB (2002) Natural enemy diversity and pest control, patterns of pest emergence with agricultural intensification. Ecol Lett 5:353–360

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Colunga GM, Gage SH, Dyer LE (1998) The insect community. In: Cavigelli MA, Deming SR, Probyn LK, Harwood RR (eds) Michigan field crop ecology, managing biological processes for productivity and environmental quality, Michigan State University Extension Bulletin E-2646. Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, East Lansing, pp 59–70

    Google Scholar 

  50. Purtauf T, Roschewitz I, Dauber J, Thies C, Tscharntke T, Wolters V (2005) Landscape context of organic and conventional farms, influences on carabid beetle diversity. Agric Ecosyst Environ 108:165–174

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Roschewitz I, Hucker M, Tscharntke T, Thies C (2005) The influence of landscape context and farming practices on parasitism of cereal aphids. Agric Ecosyst Environ 108:218–227

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Roschewitz I, Gabriel D, Tscharntke T, Thies C (2005) The effects of landscape complexity on arable weed species diversity in organic and conventional farming. J Appl Ecol 42:873–882

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Schmidt MH, Roschewitz I, Thies C, Tscharntke T (2005) Differential effects of landscape and management on diversity and density of ground-dwelling farmland spiders. J Appl Ecol 42:281–287

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Kalkhoven JTR (1993) Survival of populations and the scale of the fragmented agricultural landscape. In: Bunce RGH, Ryszkowski L, Paoletti MG (eds) Landscape ecology and agroecosystems. Lewis, Boca Raton, pp 83–90

    Google Scholar 

  55. Landis DA, Menalled FD, Costamagna AC, Wilkinson TK (2005) Manipulating plant resources to enhance beneficial arthropods in agricultural landscapes. Weed Sci 53:902–908

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Burel F, Baudry J, Butet A, Clergeau P, Delettre Y, Le Cœur D, Dubs F, Morvan N, Paillat G, Petit S, Thenail C, Brunel E, Lefeuvre JC (1998) Comparative biodiversity along a gradient of agricultural landscapes. Acta Oecol 19:47–60

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Jervis MS, Kidd MAC, Fitton MD, Huddleson T, Dawah HA (1993) Flower visiting by hymenopteran parasitoids. J Nat Hist 27:287–294

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Idris AB, Grafius E (1995) Wildflowers as nectar sources for Diadegma insulare (Hymenoptera, Ichneumonidae), a parasitoid of diamondback moth (Lepidoptera, Ypono- meutidae). Environ Entomol 24:1726–1735

    Google Scholar 

  59. Bugg RL, Ehler LE, Wilson LT (1987) Effect of common knotweed (Polygonum aviculare) on abundance and efficiency of insect predators of crop pests. NAL/USDA Report, Belsville

    Google Scholar 

  60. Pollard E (1971) Hedges. VI. Habitat diversity and crop pests, a study of Brevicoryne brassica and its syrphid predators. J Appl Ecol 8:751–780

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Bugg RL, Pickett CH (1998) Introduction, enhancing biological control—habitat management to promote natural enemies of agricultural pests. In: Pickett CH, Bugg RL (eds) Enhancing biological control: habitat management to promote natural enemies of agricultural pests. The Regents of the University of California, Berkeley, pp 1–23

    Google Scholar 

  62. Rosenheim JA, Limburg DD, Colfer RG (1999) Impact of generalist predators on a biological control agent, Chrysoperla carnea, direct observations. Ecol Appl 9:409–417

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Nicholls CI, Parrella M, Altieri MA (2001) The effects of a vegetational corridor on the abundance and dispersal of insect biodiversity within a northern California organic vineyard. Landscape Ecol 16:133–146

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Corbett A (1998) The importance of movement in the response of natural enemies to habitat manipulation. In: Pickett CH, Bugg RL (eds) Enhancing biological control, habitat management to promote natural enemies of agricultural pests. University of California Press, Berkeley, pp 25–48

    Google Scholar 

  65. Doutt RL, Nakata J (1973) The Rubus leafhopper and its egg parasitoid, an endemic biotic system useful in grape pest mangement. Environ Entomol 2:381–386

    Google Scholar 

  66. Murphy BC, Rosenheim JA, Granett J, Pickett CH, Dowell RV (1998) Measuring the impact of a natural enemy refuge, the prune tree/vineyard example. In: Pickett CH, Bugg RL (eds) Enhancing biological control, habitat management to promote natural enemies of agricultural pests. University of California Press, Berkeley, pp 297–309

    Google Scholar 

  67. Ricketts TH, Daily GC, Ehrlich PR, Michener CD (2004) Economic value of tropical forest to coffee production. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101:12579–12582

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Thies C, Tscharntke T (1999) Landscape structure and biological control in agroecosystems. Science 285:893–895

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Pullaro TC, Marino PC, Jackson DM, Harrison HF, Keinath AP (2006) Effects of killed cover cropmulch on weeds, weed seeds, and herbivores. Agric Ecosyst Environ 115:97–104

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Menalled FD, Marino PC, Gage SH, Landis D (1999) Does agricultural landscape structure affect parasitism and parasitoid diversity? Ecol Appl 9:634–641

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Landis DA, Wratten SD, Gurr GA (2000) Habitat management to conserve natural enemies of arthrop pests in agriculture. Annu Rev Entomol 45:175–201

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Gurr GM, Wratten SD, Altieri MA (eds) (2004) Ecological engineering for pest management: habitat manipulation for Arthropods. CSIRO, Collingwood, p 244

    Google Scholar 

  73. Liebman M, Davis AS (2000) Integration of soil, crop and weed management in low-external-input farming systems. Weed Res 40:27–47

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Westerman P, Liebman M, Menalled FD, Heggenstaller AH, Hartzler RG, Dixon PM (2005) Are many little hammers effective?—velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti) population dynamics in two- and four-year crop rotation systems. Weed Sci 53:382–392

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Heggenstaller AH, Menalled FD, Liebman M, Westerman PR (2006) Seasonal patterns in post-dispersal seed predation of Abutilon theophrasti and Setaria faberi in three-cropping systems. J Appl Ecol 43:999–1010

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Ghorbani R, Leifart C, Seel W (2005) Biological control of weeds with antagonistic plant pathogens. Adv Agron 86:191–225

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Albrecht M, Duelli P, Muller C, Kleijn D, Schmid B (2007) The Swiss agri-environment scheme enhances pollinator diversity and plant reproductive success in nearby intensively managed farmland. J Appl Ecol 44:813–822

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Ricketts TH, Daily GC, Ehrlich PR, Fay JP (2001) Countryside biogeography of moths in a fragmented landscape, biodiversity in native and agricultural habitats. Conserv Biol 15:378–388

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Marshall EJP, Brown VK, Boatman ND, Lutman PJW, Squire GR, Ward LK (2003) The role of weeds in supporting biological diversity within crop fields. Weed Res 43:77–89

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Marshall EJP, Moonen AC (2002) Field margins in northern Europe: their functions and interactions with agriculture. Agric Ecosyst Environ 89:5–21

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Baudry J, Papy F (2001) The role of landscape heterogeneity in the sustainability of cropping systems. In: Nösberger J, Geiger HH, Struik PC (eds) Crop science – progress and prospects. CABI, Oxon

    Google Scholar 

  82. Holland JM, Thomas CFG, Birkett T, Southway S, Oaten H (2005) Farm-scale spatiotemporal dynamics of predatory beetles in arable crops. J Appl Ecol 42:1140–1152

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. Shennan C, Bode CA (2002) Integrating wetland habitat with agriculture. In: Jackson LL, Jackson D (eds) The farm as a natural habitat. Island, Washington, DC, pp 189–204

    Google Scholar 

  84. van Groenigen JW, Burns EG, Eadie JM, Horwath WR, van Kessel C (2003) Effects of foraging waterfowl in winter flooded rice fields on weed stress and residue decomposition. Agric Ecosyst Environ 95:289–296

    Article  Google Scholar 

  85. Benton TG, Vickery JA, Wilson JD (2003) Farmland biodiversity: is habitat heterogeneity the key? Trends Ecol Evol 18:182–188

    Article  Google Scholar 

  86. Bengtsson J, Ahnstrom J, Weibull AC (2005) The effects of organic agriculture on biodiversity and abundance, a meta-analysis. J Appl Ecol 42:261–269

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. IFEVA-CONICET, Depto. de Recursos Naturales y Ambiente, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina

    Dr. Claudio M. Ghersa (Professor of Ecology, Facultad de AgronomÙ¡)

Authors
  1. Dr. Claudio M. Ghersa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Claudio M. Ghersa .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. RAMTECH LIMITED, Larkspur, CA, USA

    Robert A. Meyers

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this entry

Cite this entry

Ghersa, C.M. (2012). Agroecological Basis for Managing Biotic Constraints. In: Meyers, R.A. (eds) Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0851-3_196

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation