Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Life at High Salt Concentrations

  • Reference work entry
The Prokaryotes

1 Introduction

A great variety of prokaryotes, Bacteria as well as Archaea, can be found in saline and hypersaline environments. These microorganisms are adapted to life at high salt concentrations and to the high osmotic pressure of their environment resulting from the high salinity. This chapter presents a general overview of the hypersaline environments as biotopes for prokaryotic life, the types of organisms encountered in them, and the mechanisms the different groups of prokaryotes have developed to cope with the special requirements of life in the presence of molar concentrations of salt. More detailed information on the variety of halophilic organisms can be found in the specific chapters that deal with the different taxonomic groups.

2 Saline and Hypersaline Habitats

The greatest part of the biosphere is saline. The waters of the oceans and seas that cover most of the earth’s surface contain around 35 g dissolved salts per liter. Higher salt concentrations are often encountered...

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 700.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Literature Cited

  • Anderson, G. C. 1958 Some limnological features of a shallow saline meromictic lake Limnol. Oceanogr. 3 259–270

    Google Scholar 

  • Azachi, M., A. Oren, P. Gurevich, S. Sarig, and Y. Henis. 1995 Transformation of formaldehyde by a Halomonas sp Can. J. Microbiol. 41 548–553

    Google Scholar 

  • Bertrand, C., M. Almallah, M. Aquaviva, and G. Mille. 1990 Biodegradation of hydrocarbons by an extremely halophilic archaebacterium Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 11 260–263

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boone, D. R., I. M. Mathrani, Y. Liu, J. A. G. F. Menaia, R. A. Mah, and J. E. Boone. 1993 Isolation and characterization of Methanohalophilus portucalensis sp. nov. and DNA-reassociation study of the genus Methanohalophilus Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 43 430–437

    Google Scholar 

  • Borowitzka, L. J. 1981 The microflora. Adaptations to life in extremely saline lakes Hydrobiologia 81 33–46

    Google Scholar 

  • Brandt, K. K., and K. Ingvorsen. 1997 Desulfobacter halotolerans sp. nov., a halotolerant acetate-oxidizing sulfate-reducing bacterium isolated from sediments of Great Salt Lake, Utah Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 20 366–373

    Google Scholar 

  • Brock, T. D. 1979 Ecology of saline lakes M. Shilo Strategies of microbial life in extreme environments Verlag Chemie Weinheim 29–47

    Google Scholar 

  • Britton, K. L., T. J. Stillman, K. S. P. Yip, P. Forterre, P. C. Engel, and D. W. Rice. 1998 Insights into the molecular basis of salt tolerance from the study of glutamate dehydrogenase from Halobacterium salinarum J. Biol. Chem. 273 9023–9030

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, A. D. 1976 Microbial water stress Bacteriol. Rev. 40 803–846

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, A. D. 1990 Microbial water stress physiology. Principles and perspectives John Wiley & Sons Chichester 313

    Google Scholar 

  • Caumette, P. 1993 Ecology and physiology of phototrophic bacteria and sulfate-reducing bacteria in marine salterns Experientia 49 473–481

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Caumette, P., R. Baulaigue, and R. Matheron. 1991 Thiocapsa halophila sp. nov., a new halophilic phototrophic purple sulfur bacterium Arch. Microbiol. 155 170–176

    Google Scholar 

  • Caumette, P., Y. Cohen, and R. Matheron. 1991 Isolation and characterization of Desulfovibrio halophilus sp. nov., a halophilic sulfate-reducing bacterium isolated from Solar Lake (Sinai) Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 14 33–38

    Google Scholar 

  • Caumette, P., J. F. Imhoff, J. Süling, and R. Matheron. 1997 Chromatium glycolicum sp. nov., a moderately halophilic purple sulfur bacterium that uses glycolate as substrate Arch. Microbiol. 167 11–18

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cayol, J. L., B. Ollivier, B. K. C. Patel, G. Prensier, J. Guezennec, and J.-L. Garcia. 1994 Isolation and characterization of Halothermothrix orenii gen. nov., sp. nov., a halophilic, thermophilic, fermentative strictly anaerobic bacterium Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 44 534–540

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Christian, J. H. B., and J. A. Waltho. 1962 Solute concentrations within cells of halophilic and non-halophilic bacteria Biochim. Biophys. Acta 65 506–508

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Conrad, R., P. Frenzel, and Y. Cohen. 1995 Methane emission from hypersaline microbial mats: lack of aerobic methane oxidation activity FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 16 197–305

    Google Scholar 

  • Csonka, L. N. 1989 Physiological and genetic response of bacteria to osmotic stress Microbiol. Rev. 53 121–147

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • DeFrank, J. J., and T. C. Cheng. 1991 Purification and properties of an organophosphorus anhydrase from a halophilic bacterial isolate J. Bacteriol. 173 1938–1943

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Denner, E. B. M., T. J. McGenity, H.-J. Busse, W. D. Grant, G. Wanner, and H. Stan-Lotter. 1994 Halococcus salifodinae sp. nov., an archaeal isolate from an Austrian salt mine Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 44 774–780

    Google Scholar 

  • Dennis, P. P., and L. C. Shimmin. 1997 Evolutionary divergence and salinity-mediated selection in halophilic archaea Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 61 90–104

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Desmarais, D., P. E. Jablonski, N. S. Fedarko, and M. F. Roberts. 1997 2-Sulfotrehalose, a novel osmolyte in haloalkaliphilic archaea J. Bacteriol. 179 3146–3153

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dobson, S. J., S. R. James, P. D. Franzmann, and T. A. McMeekin. 1991 A numerical taxonomic study of some pigmented bacteria isolated from Organic Lake, an Antarctic hypersaline lake Arch. Microbiol. 156 56–61

    Google Scholar 

  • Duschl, A., and G. Wagner. 1986 Primary and secondary chloride transport in Halobacterium halobium J. Bacteriol. 168 548–552

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dym, O., M. Mevarech, and J. L. Sussman. 1995 Structural features that stabilize halophilic malate dehydrogenase from an archaebacterium Science 267 1344–1346

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ebel, C., P. Faou, B. Franzetti, B. Kernel, D. Madern, M. Pascu, C. Pfister, S. Richard, and G. Zaccai. 1999 Molecular interactions in extreme halophiles—the solvation-stabilization hypothesis for halophilic proteins A. Oren Microbiology and biogeochemistry of hypersaline environments CRC Press Boca Raton, FL 227–237

    Google Scholar 

  • Edgerton, M. E., and P. Brimblecombe. 1981 Thermodynamics of halobacterial environments Can. J. Microbiol. 27 899–909

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, H. 1995 Life in unusual environments—progress in understanding the structure and function of enzymes from extreme halophilic bacteria Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 318 1–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, H., and E. J. Wachtel. 1987 Structural studies of halophilic proteins, ribosomes, and organelles of bacteria adapted to extreme salt concentrations Ann. Rev. Biophys. Biophys. Chem. 16 69–92

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, H., M. Mevarech, and G. Zaccai. 1992 Biochemical, structural, and molecular genetic aspects of halophilism Adv. Prot. Chem. 43 1–62

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elcock, A. H., and J. A. McCammon. 1998 Electrostatic contribution to the stability of halophilic proteins J. Mol. Biol. 280 731–748

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Emerson, D., S. Chauhan, P. Oriel, and J. Breznak. 1994 Haloferax sp. D1227, a halophilic archaeon capable of growth on aromatic compounds Arch. Microbiol. 161 445–452

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Franzmann, P. D. 1991 The microbiota of saline lakes of the Vestvold Hills, Antarctica F. Rodriguez-Valera. General and applied aspects of halophilic microorganisms Plenum Press New York, NY 9–14

    Google Scholar 

  • Franzmann, P. D., E. Stackebrandt, K. Sanderson, J. K. Volkman, D. E. Cameron, P. L. Stevenson, T. A. McMeekin, and H. R. Burton. 1988a Halobacterium lacusprofundi sp. nov., a halophilic bacterium isolated from Deep Lake, Antarctica Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 11 20–27

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Franzmann, P. D., U. Wehmeyer, and E. Stackebrandt. 1988b Halomonadaceae fam. nov., a new family of the class Proteobacteria to accommodate the genera Halomonas and Deleya Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 11 16–19

    Google Scholar 

  • Frolow, F., M. Harel, J. L. Sussman, M. Mevarech, and M. Shoham. 1996 Insights into protein adaptation to a saturated salt environment from the crystal structure of a halophilic 2Fe-2S ferredoxin Nature Struct. Biol. 3 452–457

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Galinski, E. A. 1993 Compatible solutes of halophilic eubacteria: molecular principles, water-solute interactions, stress protection Experientia 49 487–496

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Galinski, E. A. 1995 Osmoadaptation in bacteria Adv. Microb. Physiol. 37 273–328

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Galinski, E. A., and P. Louis. 1999 Compatible solutes: ectoine production and gene expression A. Oren Microbiology and biogeochemistry of hypersaline environments CRC Press Boca Raton, FL 187–202

    Google Scholar 

  • Galinski, E. A., and H. G. Trüper. 1994 Microbial behaviour in salt stressed ecosystems FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 15 95–108

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gandbhir, M., I. Rashed, P. Marlière, and R. Mutzel. 1995 Convergent evolution of amino acid usage in archaebacterial and eubacterial lineages adapted to high salt Res. Microbiol. 146 113–120

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia-Pichel, F., U. Nübel, and G. Muyzer. 1998 The phylogeny of unicellular, extremely halotolerant cyanobacteria Arch. Microbiol. 169 469–482

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Giani, D., L. Giani, Y. Cohen, and W. E. Krumbein. 1984 Methanogenesis in the hypersaline Solar Lake (Sinai) FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 25 219–224

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ginzburg, M., L. Sachs, and B. Z. Ginzburg. 1970 Ion metabolism in a Halobacterium. I. Influence of age of culture on intracellular concentrations J. Gen. Physiol. 55 187–207

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grant, W. D., and B. J. Tindall. 1986 The alkaline saline environment R. A. Herbert and G. A. Codd Microbes in extreme environments Academic Press London 25–54

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant, W. D., R. T. Gemmell, and T. J. McGenity. 1998a Halophiles K. Horikoshi and W. D. Grant. Extremophiles. Microbial life in extreme environments Wiley-Liss New York, NY 93–132

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant, W. D., R. T. Gemmell, and T. J. McGenity. 1998b Halobacteria: the evidence for longevity Extremophiles 2 279–287

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hagemann, M., A. Schoor, S. Mikkat, U. Effmert, E. Zuther, K. Marin, S. Fulda, J. Vinnemeyer, A. Kunert, C. Milkowski, C. Probst, and N. Erdmann. 1999 The biochemistry and genetics of the synthesis of osmoprotective compounds in cyanobacteria A. Oren. Microbiology and biogeochemistry of hypersaline environments CRC Press Boca Raton, FL 177–186

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamaide, F., D. J. Kushner, and G. D. Sprott. 1983 Proton motive force and Na+/H+ antiport in a moderate halophile J. Bacteriol. 156 537–544

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hartmann, R., H.-D. Sickinger, and D. Oesterhelt. 1980 Anaerobic growth of halobacteria Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 77 3821–3825

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Imhoff, J. F. 1993 Osmotic adaptation in halophilic and halotolerant microorganisms R. H. Vreeland and L. I. Hochstein. The biology of halophilic bacteria CRC Press Boca Raton, FL 211–253

    Google Scholar 

  • Imhoff, J. F., F. Hashwa, and H. G. Trüper. 1978 Isolation of extremely halophilic phototrophic bacteria from the alkaline Wadi Natrun, Egypt Arch. Hydrobiol. 84 381–388

    Google Scholar 

  • Imhoff, J. F., H. G. Sahl, G. S. H. Soliman, and H. G. Trüper. 1979 The Wadi Natrun: chemical composition and microbial mass development in alkaline brines of eutrophic desert lakes Geomicrobiol. J. 1 219–234

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Imhoff, J. F., J. Süling, and R. Petri. 1998 Phylogenetic relationships among the Chromatiaceae, their taxonomic reclassification and description of the new genera Allochromatium, Halochromatium, Isochromatium, Marichromatium, Thiococcus, Thiohalocapsa and Thiochromatium Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 48 1129–1143

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jannasch, H. W. 1957 Die bakterielle Rotfäbung der Salzseen des Wadi Natrun (Ägypten) Arch. Hydrobiol. 53 425–433

    Google Scholar 

  • Javor, B. J. 1989 Hypersaline environments. Microbiology and biogeochemistry Springer-Verlag Berlin 328

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanner, B. I., and E. Racker. 1975 Light-dependent proton and rubidium translocation in membrane vesicles from Halobacterium halobium Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 64 1054–1061

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kempf, B., and E. Bremer. 1998 Uptake and synthesis of compatible solutes as microbial stress responses to high-osmolality environments Arch. Microbiol. 170 319–330

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kevbrin, V. V., T. N. Zhilina, and G. A. Zavarzin. 1995 Physiology of homoacetic bacteria Acetohalobium arabaticum Microbiologiya (in Russian) 64 165–170

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kalyuzhnaya, M. G., V. N. Khmelenina, N. G. Starostina, S. V. Baranova, N. E. Suzina, and Y. A. Trotsenko. 1998 A new moderately halophilic methanotroph of the genus Methylobacter Mikrobiologiya (in Russian) 57 532–539

    Google Scholar 

  • Khmelenina, V. N., N. G. Starostina, M. G. Tsvetkova, A. P. Sokolov, N. E. Suzina, and Y. A. Trotsenko. 1996 Methanotrophic bacteria in saline reservoirs of Ukraine and Tuva Mikrobiologiya (in Russian) 65 696–703

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khmelenina, V. N., M. G. Kalyuzhneya, N. G. Starostina, N. E. Suzina, and Y. A. Trotsenko. 1997 Isolation and characterization of halotolerant alkaliphilic methanotrophic bacteria from Tuva soda lakes Curr. Microbiol. 35 257–261

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koops, H.-P., B. Böttcher, U. Müller, A. Pommerening-Röser, and G. Stehr. 1996 Description of a new species of Nitrosomonas Arch. Microbiol. 154 244–248

    Google Scholar 

  • Krekeler, D., P. Sigalevich, A. Teske, H. Cypionka, and Y. Cohen. 1997 A sulfate-reducing bacterium from the oxic layer of a microbial mat from Solar Lake (Sinai), Desulfovibrio oxyclinae sp. nov Arch. Microbiol. 167 369–375

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kulichevskaya, I. S., I. S. Zvyagintseva, A. L. Tarasov, and V. K. Plakunov. 1992 The extremely halophilic archaeobacteria from some hypersaline ecotops Microbiologiya (in Russian) 61 70–75

    Google Scholar 

  • Kushner, D. J. 1978 Life in high salt and solute concentrations: halophilic bacteria D. J. Kushner. Microbial life in extreme environments Academic Press London 317–368

    Google Scholar 

  • Kushner, D. J. 1985 The Halobacteriaceae C. R. Woese and R. S. Wolfe. The bacteria. A treatise on structure and function. Vol. VIII. Archaebacteria Academic Press Orlando, FL 171–214

    Google Scholar 

  • Lai, M.-C., and R. P. Gunsalus. 1992 Glycine betaine and potassium ions are the major compatible solutes in the extremely halophilic methanogen Methanohalophilus strain Z7302 J. Bacteriol. 174 7474–7477

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lanyi, J. K. 1974 Salt-dependent properties of proteins from extremely halophilic bacteria Bacteriol. Rev. 38 272–290

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lanyi, J. K. 1986 Halorhodopsin: a light-driven chloride ion pump Ann. Rev. Biophys. Biophys. Chem. 15 11–28

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lanyi, J. K., and R. E. MacDonald. 1976 Existence of electrogenic hydrogen/sodium transport in Halobacterium cell envelope vesicles Biochemistry 15 4608–4614

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lanyi, J. K., and M. P. Silverman. 1972 The state of binding of intracellular K+ in Halobacterium cutirubrum Can. J. Microbiol. 18 993–995

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lanyi, J. K., and M. P. Silverman. 1979 Gating effects in Halobacterium halobium membrane transport J. Biol. Chem. 254 4750–4755

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lanyi, J. K., and J. Stevenson. 1970 Studies of the electron transport chain of extremely halophilic bacteria IV. Role of hydrophobic forces in the structure of menadione reductase J. Biol. Chem. 245 4074–4080

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Larsen, H. 1973 The halobacteria’s confusion to biology Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 39 383–396

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lowe, S. E., M. K. Jain, and J. G. Zeikus. 1993 Biology, ecology, and biotechnological applications of anaerobic bacteria adapted to environmental stresses in temperature, pH, salinity, or substrates Microbiol. Rev. 57 451–509

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Luisi, B. F., J. K. Lanyi, and H. J. Weber. 1980 Na+ transport via Na+/H+ antiport in Halobacterium halobium envelope vesicles FEBS Lett. 117 354–358

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mancinelli, R. L., and L. I. Hochstein. 1986 The occurrence of denitrification in extremely halophilic bacteria FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 35 55–58

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Masui, M., and S. Wada. 1973 Intracellular concentrations of Na+, K+ and Cl− of a moderately halophilic bacterium Can. J. Microbiol. 19 1181–1186

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Matheson, A. T., G. D. Sprott, I. J. McDonald, and H. Tessier. 1976 Some properties of an unidentified halophile: growth characteristics, internal salt concentrations, and morphology Can. J. Microbiol. 22 780–786

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McMeekin, T. A., and P. D. Franzmann. 1988 Effect of temperature on the growth rates of halotolerant and halophilic bacteria isolated from Antarctic saline lakes Polar Biol. 8 281–285

    Google Scholar 

  • McMeekin, T. A., P. D. Nichols, S. D. Nichols, A. Jugasz, and P. D. Franzmann. 1993 Biology and biotechnological potential of halotolerant bacteria from Antarctic saline lakes Experientia 49 1042–1046

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mermelstein, L. D., and J. G. Zeikus. 1998 Anaerobic nonmethanogenic extremophiles K. Horikoshi and W. D. Grant. Extremophiles. Microbial life in extreme environments Wiley-Liss New York, NY 255–284

    Google Scholar 

  • Meury, J., and M. Kohiyama. 1989 ATP is required for K+ active transport in the archaebacterium Haloferax volcanii Arch. Microbiol. 151 530–536

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mevarech, M., and E. Neumann. 1977 Malate dehydrogenase isolated from extremely halophilic bacteria of the Dead Sea. 2. Effect of salt on the catalytic activity and structure Biochemistry 16 3786–3792

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mullakhanbhai, M. F., and H. Larsen. 1975 Halobacterium volcanii spec. nov., a Dead Sea halobacterium with a moderate salt requirement Arch. Microbiol. 104 207–214

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Norton, C. F., T. J. McGenity, and W. D. Grant. 1993 Archaeal halophiles (halobacteria) from two British salt mines J. Gen. Microbiol. 139 1077–1081

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ollivier, B., M.-L. Fardeau, J.-L. Cayol, M. Magot, B. K. C. Patel, G. Prensier, and J.-L. Garcia. 1988 Methanocalculus halotolerans gen. nov., sp. nov., isolated from an oil-producing well Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 48 821–828

    Google Scholar 

  • Ollivier, B., C. E. Hatchikian, G. Prensier, J. Guezennec, and J.-L. Garcia. 1991 Desulfohalobium retbaense gen. nov. sp. nov., a halophilic sulfate-reducing bacterium from sediments of a hypersaline lake in Senegal Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 41 74–81

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ollivier, B., P. Caumette, J.-L. Garcia, and R. A. Mah. 1994 Anaerobic bacteria from hypersaline environments Microbiol. Rev. 58 27–38

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oremland, R. S., and G. M. King. 1989 Methanogenesis in hypersaline environments Y. Cohen and E. Rosenberg. Microbial mats. Physiological ecology of benthic microbial communities American Society for Microbiology Washington, DC 180–190

    Google Scholar 

  • Oren, A. 1986 Intracellular salt concentration of the anaerobic halophilic eubacteria Haloanaerobium praevalens and Halobacteroides halobius Can. J. Microbiol. 32 4–9

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oren, A. 1988a The microbial ecology of the Dead Sea K. C. Marshall. Advances in microbial ecology Plenum Press New York, NY 10 193–229

    Google Scholar 

  • Oren, A. 1988b Anaerobic degradation of organic compounds at high salt concentrations Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 54 267–277

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oren, A. 1991 Anaerobic growth of halophilic archaeobacteria by reduction of fumarate J. Gen. Microbiol. 137 1387–1390

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oren, A. 1992 The genera Haloanaerobium, Halobacteroides, and Sporohalobacter A. Balows, H. G. Trüper, M. Dworkin, W. Harder, and K.-H. Schleifer. The Prokaryotes: a handbook on the biology of bacteria: ecophysiology, isolation, identification, applications. 2nd. ed Springer-Verlag New York, NY 1893–1900

    Google Scholar 

  • Oren, A. 1993 Ecology of extremely halophilic microorganisms R. H. Vreeland and L. I. Hochstein. The biology of halophilic bacteria CRC Press Boca Raton, FL 25–53

    Google Scholar 

  • Oren, A. 1994 The ecology of the extremely halophilic archaea FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 13 415–440

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oren, A. 1999 Salts and brines B. A. Whitton and M. Potts. Ecology of cyanobacteria: their diversity in time and space Kluwer Academic Publishers Dordrecht 281–306

    Google Scholar 

  • Oren, A., and P. Gurevich. 1993 The fatty acid synthetase of Haloanaerobium praevalens is not inhibited by salt FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 108 287–290

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oren, A., and C. D. Litchfield. 1999 A procedure for the enrichment and isolation of Halobacterium FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 173 353–358

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oren, A., and H. G. Trüper. 1990 Anaerobic growth of halophilic archaeobacteria by reduction of dimethylsulfoxide and trimethylamine N-oxide FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 70 33–36

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oren, A., P. Gurevich, M. Azachi, and Y. Henis. 1992 Microbial degradation of pollutants at high salt concentrations Biodegradation 3 387–398

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oren, A., M. Heldal, and S. Norland. 1997 X-ray microanalysis of intracellular ions in the anaerobic halophilic eubacterium Haloanaerobium praevalens Can. J. Microbiol. 43 588–592

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pieper, U., G. Kapadia, M. Mevarech, and O. Herzberg. 1998 Structural features of halophilicity derived from the crystal structure of dihydrofolate reductase from the Dead Sea archaeon, Haloferax volcanii Structure 6 75–88

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Post, F. J. 1977 The microbial ecology of the Great Salt Lake Microb. Ecol. 3 143–165

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Post, F. J., and J. C. Stube. 1988 A microcosm study of nitrogen utilization in the Great Salt Lake, Utah Hydrobiologia 158 89–100

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pundak, S., and H. Eisenberg. 1981 Structure and activity of malate dehydrogenase of the extreme halophilic bacteria of the Dead Sea. 1. Conformation and interaction with water and salt between 5 M and 1 M NaCl concentration Eur. J. Biochem. 118 463–470

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pundak, S., S. Aloni, and H. Eisenberg. 1981 Structure and activity of malate dehydrogenase of the extreme halophilic bacteria of the Dead Sea. 2. Inactivation, dissociation and unfolding at NaCl concentrations below 2 M. Salt, salt concentration and temperature dependence of enzyme stability Eur. J. Biochem. 118 471–477

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rainey, F. A., T. N. Zhilina, E. S. Boulygina, E. Stackebrandt, T. P. Tourova, and G. A. Zavarzin. 1995 The taxonomic status of the fermentative anaerobic bacteria: description of Haloanaerobiales ord. nov., Halobacteroidaceae fam. nov., Orenia gen. nov. and further taxonomic rearrangements at the genus and species level Anaerobe 1 185–199

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reed, R. H. 1986 Halotolerant and halophilic microbes R. A. Herbert and G. A. Codd. Microbes in extreme environments Academic Press London 55–81

    Google Scholar 

  • Reistad, R. 1970 On the composition and nature of the bulk protein of extremely halophilic bacteria Arch. Microbiol. 71 353–360

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rengpipat, S., S. E. Lowe, and J. G. Zeikus. 1988 Effect of extreme salt concentrations on the physiology and biochemistry of Halobacteroides acetoethylicus J. Bacteriol. 170 3065–3071

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez-Valera, F. 1988 Characteristics and microbial ecology of hypersaline environments F. Rodriguez-Valera. Halophilic bacteria CRC Press Boca Raton, FL 1 3–30

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez-Valera, F. 1993 Introduction to saline environments R. H. Vreeland and L. I. Hochstein. The biology of halophilic bacteria CRC Press Boca Raton, FL 1–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubentschik, L. 1929 Zur Nitrifikation bei hohen Salzkonzentrationen Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Abt. II 77 1–18

    Google Scholar 

  • Schobert, B., and J. K. Lanyi. 1982 Halorhodopsin is a light-driven chloride pump J. Biol. Chem. 257 10306–10313

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shiba, H., and K. Horikoshi. 1988 Isolation and characterization of novel anaerobic, halophilic eubacteria from hypersaline environments of western America and Kenya, 371–373, Proceedings of the FEMS symposium—The microbiology of extreme environments and its biotechnological potential, Portugal

    Google Scholar 

  • Shiba, H., H. Yamamoto, and K. Horikoshi. 1989 Isolation of strictly anaerobic halophiles from the aerobic surface sediment of hypersaline environments of California and Nevada FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 57 191–196

    Google Scholar 

  • Shindler, D. B., R. M. Wydro, and D. J. Kushner. 1977 Cell-bound cations of the moderately halophilic bacterium Vibrio costicola J. Bacteriol. 130 698–703

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Slobodkin, A. I., and G. A. Zavarzin. 1992 Methane production in halophilic cyanobacterial mats in lagoons of Sivash lake Mikrobiologiya (in Russian) 61 294–298

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sokolov, A. P., and Y. A. Trotsenko. 1995 Methane consumption in (hyper)saline habitats of Crimea FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 18 299–304

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Soliman, G. S. H., and H. G. Trüper. 1982 Halobacterium pharaonis sp. nov., a new, extremely haloalkaliphilic archaebacterium with low magnesium requirement Zbl. Bakt. Hyg., I. Abt. Orig. C 3 318–329

    Google Scholar 

  • Tindall, B. J., and H. G. Trüper. 1986 Ecophysiology of the aerobic halophilic archaebacteria Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 7 202–212

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tindall, B. J., A. A. Mills, and W. D. Grant. 1980 An alkalophilic red halophilic bacterium with a low magnesium requirement from a Kenyan soda lake J. Gen. Microbiol. 116 257–260

    Google Scholar 

  • Tindall, B. J., H. N. M. Ross, and W. D. Grant. 1984 Natronobacterium gen. nov. and Natronococcus gen. nov., two new genera of haloalkaliphilic archaebacteria Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 5 41–57

    Google Scholar 

  • Tokuda, H., and T. Unemoto. 1983 Growth of a marine Vibrio alginolyticus and moderately halophilic V. costicola becomes uncoupler resistant when the respiration-dependent Na+ pump functions J. Bacteriol. 156 636–643

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trüper, H. G., and E. A. Galinski. 1990 Biosynthesis and fate of compatible solutes in extremely halophilic phototrophic eubacteria FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 75 247–254

    Google Scholar 

  • Trüper, H. G., J. Severin, A. Wohlfarth, E. Müller, and E. A. Galinski. 1991 Halophily, taxonomy, phylogeny and nomenclature F. Rodriguez-Valera. General and applied aspects of halophilic microorganisms Plenum Press New York, NY 3–7

    Google Scholar 

  • Upasani, V., and S. Desai. 1990 Sambar Salt Lake. Chemical composition of the brines and studies on haloalkaliphilic archaebacteria Arch. Microbiol. 154 589–593

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ventosa, A., J. J. Nieto, and A. Oren. 1998 Biology of moderately halophilic aerobic bacteria Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 62 504–544

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vreeland, R. H. 1987 Mechanisms of halotolerance in microorganisms CRC Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 14 311–356

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vreeland, R. H., and D. Powers. 1999 Considerations for microbiological sampling of crystals from ancient salt formations A. Oren. Microbiology and biogeochemistry of hypersaline environments CRC Press Boca Raton, FL 53–73

    Google Scholar 

  • Vreeland, R. H., C. D. Litchfield, E. L. Martin, and E. Elliot. 1980 Halomonas elongata, a new genus and species of extremely salt-tolerant bacteria Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 30 485–495

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vreeland, R. H., B. D. Mierau, C. D. Litchfield, and E. L. Martin. 1983 Relationship of the internal solute composition to the salt tolerance of Halomonas elongata Can. J. Microbiol. 29 407–414

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vreeland, R. H., A. F. Piselli, Jr., S. McDonnough, and S. S. Meyers. 1998 Distribution and diversity of halophilic bacteria in a subsurface salt formation Extremophiles 2 321–331

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, G., R. Hartmann, and D. Oesterhelt. 1978 Potassium uniport and ATP synthesis in Halobacterium halobium Eur. J. Biochem. 89 169–179

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang,, D., and Q. Tang. 1989 Natronobacterium from soda lakes of China T. Hattori, Y. Ishida, Y. Maruyama, R. Y. Morita, and A. Uchida. Recent advances in microbial ecology Japan Scientific Societies Press Tokyo 68–72

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward, D. M., and T. D. Brock. 1978 Hydrocarbon degradation in hypersaline environments Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 35 353–359

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Welsh, D. T., Y. E. Lindsay, P. Caumette, R. A. Herbert, and J. Hannan. 1996 Identification of trehalose and glycine betaine as compatible solutes in the moderately halophilic sulfate reducing bacterium Desulfovibrio halophilus FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 140 203–207

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wohlfarth, A., J. Severin, and E. A. Galinski. 1990 The spectrum of compatible solutes in heterotrophic halophilic eubacteria of the family Halomonadaceae J. Gen. Microbiol. 136 705–712

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, A. P., and D. P. Kelly. 1991 Isolation and characterisation of Thiobacillus halophilus sp. nov., a sulphur-oxidising autotrophic eubacterium from a Western Australian hypersaline lake Arch. Microbiol. 156 277–280

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zaccai, G., and H. Eisenberg. 1991 A model for the stabilization of a halophilic protein G. di Prisco Life under extreme conditions Springer-Verlag Berlin 125–137

    Google Scholar 

  • Zavarzin, G. A., T. N. Zhilina, and M. A. Pusheva. 1994 Halophilic acetogenic bacteria H. L. Drake. Acetogenesis Chapman & Hall New York, NY 432–444

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhilina, T. N., and G. A. Zavarzin. 1987 Methanohalobium evestigatum gen. nov., sp. nov., extremely halophilic methane-producing archaebacteria Dokl. Akad. Nauk. SSSR (in Russian) 293 464–468

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhilina, T. N., and G. A. Zavarzin. 1990 Extremely halophilic, methylotrophic, anaerobic bacteria FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 87 315–322

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhilina, T. N., and G. A. Zavarzin. 1994 Alkaliphilic anaerobic community at pH 10 Curr. Microbiol. 29 109–112

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhilina, T. N., G. A. Zavarzin, E. N. Detkova, and F. A. Rainey. 1996 Natroniella acetigena gen. nov. sp. nov., an extremely haloalkaliphilic, homoacetic bacterium: a new member of Haloanaerobiales Curr. Microbiol. 32 320–326

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Aharon Oren
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Microbiology, University of Minnesota, Box 196, Twin Cities, Minneapolis, MN 55455-0312, USA

    Martin Dworkin Professor Dr. (Editor-in-Chief) (Editor-in-Chief)

  2. Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University Medical School, 299 Campus Drive, Fairchild, D039, Stanford, CA, 94305-5124, USA

    Stanley Falkow

  3. Department of Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology, Tel Aviv University, Ramat-Aviv, 69978, Israel

    Eugene Rosenberg

  4. Department of Microbiology, Technical University Munich, 80290, Munich, Germany

    Karl-Heinz Schleifer

  5. DSMZ- German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures GmbH, Mascheroder Weg 1b, 38124, Braunschweig, Germany

    Erko Stackebrandt

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2006 Springer-Verlag

About this entry

Cite this entry

Oren, A. (2006). Life at High Salt Concentrations. In: Dworkin, M., Falkow, S., Rosenberg, E., Schleifer, KH., Stackebrandt, E. (eds) The Prokaryotes. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-30742-7_9

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation