Abstract
Ideally, formulation development of biopharmaceutical protein therapeutics will provide a final dosage form that offers sufficient ex vivo stability during processing, handling, and long-term storage and also provide adequate in vivo stability in terms of bioavailability that meets the pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics (PK/PD) therapeutic requirements. This chapter focuses on ex vivo stability of protein therapeutics and is targeted for the novice researcher who struggles with the inherent instabilities of biological molecules. More important, this chapter provides the inexperienced formulators with fundamental understanding and the basic tools for formulation development of biopharmaceutical proteins.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Hageman, M. J. Water sorption and solid-state stability of proteins, in Stability of Protein Pharmaceuticals, Part A: Chemical and Physical Pathways of Protein Degradation (Ahern, T. J. and Manning, M. C., eds.), Plenum Press, New York, NY, 1992, pp. 273–309.
Sapan, C. V., Lundblad, R. L., and Pace, N. C. (1999) Colorimetric protein assay techniques. Biotechnol. Appl. Biochem. 29, 99–108.
Donovan, J. W. (1973) Ultraviolet difference spectroscopy—new techniques and applications. Methods Enzymol. 27, 497–525.
Balestrieri, C., Colonna, G., Giovane, A., Irace, G., and Servillo, L. (1978) Secondderivative spectroscopy of proteins. A method for the quantitative determination of aromatic amino acids in proteins. Eur. J. Biochem. 90, 433–440.
Thomson, J. A., Shirley, B. A., Grimsley, G. R., and Pace, C. N. (1989) Conformational stability and mechanism of folding of ribonuclease T1. J. Biol. Chem. 264, 11614–11620.
Dong, A., Kendrick, B., Kreilgard, L., Matsuura, J., Manning, M. C., and Carpenter, J. F. (1997) Spectroscopic study of secondary structure and thermal denaturation of recombinant human factor XIII in aqueous solution. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 347, 213–220.
Kelly, S. M. and Price, N. C. (2000) The use of circular dichroism in the investigation of protein structure and function. Curr. Protein Pept. Sci. 1, 349–384.
Dong, A. and Caughey, W. S. (1994) Infrared methods for study of hemoglobin reactions and structures. Methods Enzymol. 232, 139–175.
Dong, A., Huang, P., and Caughey, W. S. (1990) Protein secondary structures in water from second-derivative amide I infrared spectra. Biochemistry 29, 3303–3308.
Dong, A., Prestrelski, S. J., Allison, S. D., and Carpenter, J. F. (1995) Infrared spectroscopic studies of lyophilization-and temperature-induced protein aggregation. J. Pharm. Sci. 84, 415–424.
Carpenter, J. F., Prestrelski, S. J., and Dong, A. (1998) Application of infrared spectroscopy to development of stable lyophilized protein formulations. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 45, 231–238.
Cleland, J. L., Lam, X., Kendrick, B., Yang, J., Yang, T. H., Overcashier, D., et al. (2001) A specific molar ratio of stabilizer to protein is required for storage stability of a lyophilized monoclonal antibody. J. Pharm. Sci. 90, 301–321.
Gu, L. C., Erdos, E. A., Chiang, H. S., Calderwood, T., Tsai, K., Visor, G. C., et al. (1991) Stability of interleukin 1 beta (IL-1 beta) in aqueous solution: analytical methods, kinetics, products, and solution formulation implications. Pharm. Res. 8, 485–490.
Cleland, J. L., Powell, M. F., and Shire S. J. (1993) The development of stable protein formulations: a close look at protein aggregation, deamidation, and oxidation. Crit. Rev. Ther. Drug Carrier Syst. 10, 307–377.
Manning, M. C., Patel, K., and Borchardt, R. T. (1989) Stability of protein pharmaceuticals. Pharm. Res. 6, 903–918.
Shire, S. J. Stability characterization and formulation development of recombinant human deoxyribonuclease I [Pulmozyme®, (Dornase Alpha)], in Formulation, Characterization, and Stability of Protein Drugs (Pearlman, R. and Wang, R. J., eds.), Plenum Press, New York, NY, 1996, pp.393–426.
Pace, C. N. (1974) The stability of globular proteins. CRC Crit. Rev. Biochem. 3, 1–43.
Lee, J. C. and Timasheff, S. N. (1981) The stabilization of proteins by sucrose. J. Biol. Chem. 256, 7193–7201.
Kendrick, B. S., Chang, B. S., Arakawa, T., Peterson, B., Randolph, T. W., Manning, M. C., and Carpenter, J. F. (1997) Preferential exclusion of sucrose from recombinant interleukin-1 receptor antagonist: role in restricted conformational mobility and compaction of native state. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 94, 11917–11922.
Norde, W. and Lyklema, J. (1991) Why proteins prefer interfaces. J. Biomater. Sci. Polym. Ed. 2, 183–202.
Sluzky, V., Tamada, J. A., Klibanov, A. M., and Langer, R. (1991) Kinetics of insulin aggregation in aqueous solutions upon agitation in the presence of hydrophobic surfaces. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 88, 9377–9381.
Bam, N. B., Cleland, J. L., Yang, J., Manning, M. C., Carpenter, J. F., Kelley, R. F., and Randolph, T. W. (1998) Tween protects recombinant human growth hormone against agitation-induced damage via hydrophobic interactions. J. Pharm. Sci. 87, 1554–1559.
Charman, S. A., Mason, K. L., and Charman, W. N. (1993) Techniques for assessing the effects of pharmaceutical excipients on the aggregation of porcine growth hormone. Pharm. Res. 10, 954–962.
Tandon, S. and Horowitz, P. M. (1989) Reversible folding of rhodanese. Presence of intermediate(s) at equilibrium. J. Biol. Chem. 264, 9859–9866.
Cleland, J. L. and Randolph, T. W. (1992) Mechanism of polyethylene glycol interaction with the molten globule folding intermediate of bovine carbonic anhydrase B. J. Biol. Chem. 267, 3147–3153.
Suelter, C. H. and DeLuca, M. (1983) How to prevent losses of protein by adsorption to glass and plastic. Anal. Biochem. 135, 112–119.
Sato, S., Ebert, C. D., and Kim, S. W. (1984) Prevention of insulin self-association and surface adsorption. J. Pharm. Sci. 72, 228–232.
Strambini, G. B. and Gabellieri, E. (1996) Proteins in frozen solutions: evidence of iceinduced partial unfolding. Biophys. J. 70, 971–976.
Chang, B. S., Kendrick, B. S., and Carpenter, J. F. (1996) Surface-induced denaturation of proteins during freezing and its inhibition by surfactants. J. Pharm. Sci. 85, 1325–1330.
Carpenter, J. F. and Crowe, J. H. (1988) The mechanism of cryoprotection of proteins by solutes. Criobiology 25, 244–255.
Kerwin, B. A., Heller, M. C., Levin, S. H., and Randolph, T. W. (1998) Effects of Tween 80 and sucrose on acute short-term stability and long-term storage at −20°C of a recombinant hemoglobin. J. Pharm. Sci. 87, 1062–1068.
Webb, S. D., Golledge, S. L., Cleland, J. L., Carpenter, J. F., and Randolph, T. W. (2002) Surface adsorption of recombinant human interferon-gamma in lyophilized and spraylyophilized formulations. J. Pharm. Sci. 91, 1474–1487.
van den Berg, L. and Rose, D. (1959) Effect of freezing on the pH and composition of sodium and potassium phosphate solutions; the reciprocal system KH2PO4-Na2-HPO4-H2O. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 81, 319–329.
Arakawa, T. and Timasheff, S. N. (1985) Theory of protein solubility. Methods Enzymol. 114, 49–79.
Carpenter, J. F. and Chang, B. S. Lyophilization of protein pharmaceuticals, in Biotechnology and Biopharmaceutical Manufacturing, Processing, and Preservation (Avis, K. E. and Wu, V. L., eds.), Interpharm Press, Buffalo Grove, IL, 1996, pp. 199–264.
Prestrelski, S. J., Pikal, K. A., and Arakawa, T. (1995) Optimization of lyophilization conditions for recombinant human interleukin-2 by dried-state conformational analysis using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. Pharm. Res. 12, 1250–1259.
Chang, B. S., Beauvais, R. M., Dong, A., and Carpenter, J. F. (1996) Physical factors affecting the storage stability of freeze-dried interleukin-1 receptor antagonist: glass transition and protein conformation. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 331, 249–258.
Pikal, M. J. (1990) Freeze-drying of proteins, part 1: process design. BioPharm 3, 18–27.
Pikal, M. J. Freeze-drying of proteins, in Formulation and Delivery of Proteins and Peptides (Cleland, J. L. and Langer, R., eds.), ACS Symposium Series, vol. 567, 1994, pp. 120–133.
Carpenter, J. F., Pikal, M. J., Chang, B. S., and Randolph, T. W. (1997) Rational design of stable lyophilized protein formulations: some practical advice. Pharm. Res. 14, 969–975.
Sellers, S. P., Clark, G. S., Sievers, R. E., and Carpenter, J. F. (2001) Dry Powders of stable protein formulations from aqueous solutions prepared using supercritical CO2-assisted aerosolization. J. Pharm. Sci. 90, 785–797.
Prestrelski, S. J., Arakawa, T., and Carpenter, J. F. (1993) Separation of freezing-and drying-induced denaturation of lyophilized proteins using stress-specific stabilization. II. Structural studies using infrared spectroscopy. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 303, 465–473.
Carpenter, J. F. and Crowe, J. H. (1989) An infrared spectroscopic study of the interactions of carbohydrates with dried proteins. Biochemistry 28, 3916–3922.
Crowe, J. H., Carpenter, J. F., and Crowe, L. M. (1998) The role of vitrification in anhydrobiosis. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 60, 73–103.
Franks, F., Hatley, R. H. M., and Mathias, S. F. (1991) Material science and the production of shelf stable biologicals. BioPharm 4, 38–55.
Pikal, M. J., Dellerman, K. M., Roy, M. L., and Riggin, R. M. (1991) The effects of formulation variables on the stability of freeze-dried human growth hormone. Pharm. Res. 8, 427–436.
Pikal, M. J. (1990) Freeze-drying of proteins, part II: formulation selection. BioPharm. 3, 26–30.
MacKenzie, A. P. quantitative aspects, in Freeze-drying and Advanced Food Technology (Goldblith, S. A., Rey, L., and Rothmayr, W. W., eds.), Academic Press, NY, 1975, pp. 277–307.
Levine, H. and Slade, L. (1988) Principles of “cryostabilization” technology from structure/ property relationships of carbohydrate/water systems—a review. Cryoletters 9, 21–63.
Levine, H. and Slade, L. (1988) Thermomechanical properties of small-carbohydrate-water glasses and “rubbers”: Kinetically metastable systems at subzero temperatures. Pure Appl. Chem. 60, 1841–1864.
Chang, B. S. and Randall, C. S. (1992) Use of subambient thermal analysis to optimize protein lyophilization. Cryobiology 29, 632–656.
Hancock, B. C. and Zografi, G. (1994) The relationship between the glass transition temperature and the water content of amorphous pharmaceutical solids. Pharm. Res. 11, 471–477.
Franks, F. (1990) Freeze-drying: from empiricism to predictability. Cryoletters 11, 93–110.
Geigert, J. and Ghrist, B. F. D. shelf-life determination of recombinant human granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (Leukine®, GM-CSF), in Formulation, Characterization, and Stability of Protein Drugs, (Pearlman, R. and Wang, Y. J., eds.), Plenum Press, New York, NY, 1996, pp 329–342.
Chen, B., Bautista, R., Yu, K., Zapata, G. A., Mulkerrin, M. G., and Chamow, S. M. (2003) Influence of histidine on the stability and physical properties of a fully human antibody in aqueous and solid forms. Pharm. Res. 20, 1952–1960.
Hill, J. B. (1959) Adsorption of insulin to glass. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 102, 75–77.
Schwarzenbach, M. S., Reimann, P., Thommen, V., Hegner, M., Mumenthaler, M., Schwob, J., and Guntherodt, H. J. (2002) Interferon alpha-2a interactions on glass vial surfaces measured by atomic force microscopy. PDA J. Pharm. Sci. Technol. 56, 78–89.
Leach, S. J. and Scheraga, H. A. (1960) Effect of light scattering on ultraviolet difference spectra. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 82, 4790–4792.
Pace, N. C., Vajdos, F., Fee, L., Grimsley, G., and Gray, T. (1995) How to measure and predict the molar absorption coefficient of a protein. Protein Sci. 4, 2411–2423.
Gekko, K. and Timasheff, S. N. (1981) Thermodynamic and kinetic examination of protein stabilization by glycerol. Biochemistry 20, 4677–4686.
Lee, L. L. and Lee, J. C. (1987) Thermal stability of proteins in the presence of poly(ethylene glycols). Biochemistry 26, 7813–7819.
Fakes, M. G., Dali, M. V., Haby, T. A., Morris, K. R., Varia, S. A., and Serajuddin, A. T. (2000) Moisture sorption behavior of selected bulking agents used in lyophilized products. PDA J. Pharm. Sci. Technol. 54, 144–149.
Yu, L., Milton, N., Groleau, E. G., Mishra, D. S., and Vansickle, R. E. (1998) Existence of a mannitol hydrate during freeze-drying and practical implications. J. Pharm. Sci. 88, 196–198.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2005 Humana Press Inc.
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Sellers, S.P., Maa, YF. (2005). Principles of Biopharmaceutical Protein Formulation. In: Smales, C.M., James, D.C. (eds) Therapeutic Proteins. Methods in Molecular Biology™, vol 308. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1385/1-59259-922-2:243
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1385/1-59259-922-2:243
Publisher Name: Humana Press
Print ISBN: 978-1-58829-390-9
Online ISBN: 978-1-59259-922-6
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols