Abstract
Estuaries of the middle Atlantic region can be characterized and viewed broadly against the backdrop of their geomorphologic features. While geomorphology is literally at the base of every estuary, these features do not necessarily yield regional signatures. A conceptual model, with layering in time and space, is proposed as an alternative to simplistic geomorphologic characterization. Humans have altered virtually every physical, chemical, and biological feature of middle Atlantic estuaries. A basic model premise is that middle Atlantic estuaries have a base of fundamental geomorphology features. Layered, in GIS fashion, on this base are the estuaries' components: climate, nutrients, watershed soils and vegetation, producers, and consumers. These components have been so strongly influenced by humans in time and space that the signature is anthropogenic. As a consequence, best management practices, stock assessment, and restoration have replaced concepts such as ecosystem integrity and stability. The focus of the layered model is the Chesapeake Bay watershed, and although middle Atlantic estuaries differ along climatic and latitudinal gradients, all reflect the detrimental effects of a massive human presence. The ability or inability of middle Atlantic estuaries to absorb human perturbation over the last 10,000 years gives them their signatures. From the Hudson-Raritan to the Pamlico-Albemarle estuaries, we have made some progress in curbing our impacts. Nearly everything we do affects our estuaries, and our actions are proportional to the number of humans living in the watersheds. Continued population growth on our coasts and many years of abuse may be irreversible as our estuaries lose their ability to be self-regulating, biological systems.
Similar content being viewed by others
Literature Cited
Achman, D. R., B. J. Brownawell, andL. Zhang. 1996. Exchange of polychlorinated biphenyls between sediment and water in the Hudson River Estuary.Estuaries 19:950–965.
Ayers, Jr.,B. D. 1993. Hard times for Chesapeake's oyster barvest.New York Times. October 17, 1993. 143:1.
bailey, J. F., J. L. Patterson, and J. L. H. Paulhus. 1975. Hurricane Agnes Rainfall and Floods, June–July 1972. Professional Paper 924, U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.
Barber, R. 1979. A Summary and Analysis of Cultural Resource Information on the Continental Shelf from the Bay of Fundy to Cape Hatteras. Final Report, Volume II. Institute for Conservation Archaeology, Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Bayley, S., V. D. Stotts, P. F. Springer, andJ. Steenis. 1978. Changes in submerged aquatic macrophyte populations at the head of Chesapeake Bay. 1958–1973.Estuaries 1:171–182.
Beeton, A. M. 1969. Changes in the environment and biota of the Great Lakes, p. 150–187.In Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Correctives. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.
Betts, E. M. 1953. Thomas Jefferson's Farm Book. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
Bidwell, P. W. and J. I. Falconer. 1941. History of Agriculture in the Northern United States 1620–1860. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication No. 358, Peter Smith, New York.
Boesch, D. F., R. J. Diaz, andR. W. Virnstein. 1976. Effects of tropical storm agnes on soft-bottom macrobenthic communities of the James and York Rivers and the lower Chesapeake Bay.Chesapeake Science 17:246–259.
Bowden, K. F. 1967. Circulation and diffusion, p. 15–36.In G. H. Lauff (ed.), Estuaries. American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C.
Boynton, W. R., W. M. Kemp, andC. W. Keefe. 1982. A comparative analysis of nutrients and other factors influencing estuarine phytoplankton production, p. 93–109.In V. S. Kennedy (ed.), Estuarine Comparisons. Academic Press, New York.
Bradley, A. G. 1910. Introduction, p. i-xxx.In E. Arber (ed.), Travels and Works of Captain John Smith. Burt Franklin, New York.
Brooks, W. K. 1891. The Oyster. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland.
Brown, H. C. 1934. The Story of Old New York. E. P. Dutton and Company, New York.
Brush, G. S. 1986. Geology and paleoecology of Chesapeake Bay: A long-term monitoring tool for management.Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 76:146–160.
Brush, G. S. 1989. Rates and patterns of estuarine sedimentation accumulation.Limnology and Oceanography 34:1235–1246.
Burkholder, J. M., H. B. Glasgow, E. J. Noga, andC. W. Hobbs. 1993. The Role of a New Toxic Dinoflagellate in Finfish and Shellfish Kills in the Neuse and Pamlico Estuaries. Report No. 93-08, Albemarle-Pamlico Estuarine Study. Department of Environment, Health and Natural Resources, Raleigh, North Carolina.
Burkholder, J. M., E. J. Noga, H. B. Glasgow, C. W. Hobbs, andS. A. Smith. 1992. New “phantom” dinoflagellate is the causative agent of major estuarine fish kills.Nature 358:407–410.
Burreson, E. M., N. A. Stokes, andC. S. Friedman. 2000. Increased virulence in an introduced pathogen:Haplosporidium nelsoni (MSX) in the eastern oysterCrassostrea virginica.Journal of Aquatic Animal Health 12:1–8.
Capper, J., G. Power, andF. R. Shivers, Jr. 1982. Governing Chesapeake Waters: A History of Water Quality Controls on the Chesapeake Bay, 1607–1972. Chesapeake Bay Program, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Annapolis, Maryland.
Caraco, N. F., J. J. Cole, P. A. Raymond, D. L. Strayer, M. L. Pace, S. E. G. Findlay, andD. T. Fischer. 1997. Zebra mussel invasion in a large turbid river: Phytoplankton response to increased grazing.Ecology 78:588–602.
Carlton, J. T. 1992. Introduced marine and estuarine mollusks of North America: An end-of-the-20th-century perspective.Journal of Shellfish Research 11:489–505.
Chesapeake Bay Commission. 1995. The Introduction of Nonindigenous Species to the Chesapeake Bay Via Ballast Water. Chesapeake Bay Commission, Annapoli, Maryland.
Cicerone, R. J. 2000. Human forcing of climate change: Easing up on the gas pedal.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States 97:10304–10306.
Clawson, M. 1979. Forests in the long sweep of American history.Science 204:1168–1174.
Cohen, R. R. H., P. V. Dresler, E. J. P. Phillips, andR. L. Cory. 1984. The effect of the Asiatic clam,Corbicula fluninea, on phytoplankton of the Potomac River, Maryland.Limnology and Oceanography 29:170–180.
Conley, D. J., H. Kaas, F. Møhlenberg, B. Rasmussen, andJ. Windolf. 2000. Characteristics of Danish Estuaries.Estuaries 23:820–837.
Cooper, S. R. 1995. Chesapeake Bay watershed historical land use: Impact on water quality and diatom communities.Ecological Applications 5:703–723.
Cooper, S. R. andG. S. Brush. 1991. Long-term history of Chesapeake Bay anoxia.Science 254:992–996.
Cooper, S. R. andG. S. Brush. 1993. A 2500 year history of anoxia and eutrophication in the Chesapeake Bay.Estuaries 16:617–626.
Cresswell, N. 1925. The Journal of Nicholas Cresswell 1774–1777. Jonathan Cape. London.
Cronin, L. E. 1967. The role of man in estuarine processes, p. 667–689.In G. H. Lauff (ed.), Estuaries. American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C.
Culliton, T. J., M. A. Warren, T. R. Goodspeed, D. J. Remer, C. M. Lackwell, andJ. J. McDonough. 1990. Fifty Years of Population Change Along the Nation's Coasts, 1960–2010. Strategic Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Rockville, Maryland.
Custer, J. F. 1986. Prehistory use of the Chesapeake Estuary: A diachronic perspective.Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 76:161–172.
Dahl, T. E. 1990. Wetland Losses in the United States 1780 to 1980's. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.
Dame, R. F. 1996. Ecology of Marine Bivalves. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.
Dame, R., M. Alber, D. Allen, M. Mallin, C. Montague, A. Lewitus, A. Chalmers, R. Gardner, C. Gilman, B. Kjerfve, J. Pinckey, andN. Smith. 2000. Estuaries of the South Atlantic Coast of North America: Their Geographical Signatures.Estuaries 23:793–819.
Dame, R. F., R. G. Zingmark, andE. Haskin. 1984. Oyster reefs as processors of estuarine materials.Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 83:239–247.
Day, Jr.,J. W., P. Didier, P. F. Hensel, andC. Ibanez. 1995. Impacts of sea-level rise in deltas in the Gulf of Mexico and the Mediterranean: The importance of pulsing events to sustainability.Estuaries 18:636–647.
Emmett, R., R. Llansó, J. Newton, R. Thom, M. Hornberger, C. Morgan, C. Levings, A. Copping, andP. Fishman. 2000. Geographical Signatures of North American West Coast Estuaries.Estuaries 23:765–792.
Farley, C. A. 1975. Epizootic and enzootic aspects ofMinchinia nelsoni (Haplosporida) disease in Maryland oysters.Journal of Protozoology 22:418–427.
Fincham, M. W. 1981. Introduction, p. xi-xvi.In V. S. Kennedy and L. L. Breisch (eds.). Maryland's Oysters: Research and Management. Publication No. UM-SG-TS-81-04. Maryland Sea Grant College, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland.
Fisher, D. C. andM. Oppenheimer. 1991. Atmospheric nitrogen deposition and the Chesapeake Bay Estuary.Ambio 20:102–108.
Ford, S. E. 1992. Avoiding the transmission of disease in commercial cultures of molluscs, with special reference toPerkinsus marinus (Dermo) andHaplosporidium nelsoni (MSX).Journal of Shellfish Research 11:539–546.
Forstall, R. L. (ed.). 1996. Population of States and Counties of the United States: 1790 to 1990 from the Twenty-one Decennial Census. Population Division, Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.
Froomer, N. L. 1978. Geomorphic change in some western shore tributaries during historic times. Ph.D. Dissertation, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland.
Galli, J. 1991. Thermal Impacts Associated with Urbanization and Stormwater Management Best Management Practices. Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments, Washington, D.C.
Gottlieb, S. J. andM. E. Schweighofer. 1996. Oysters and the Chesapeake Bay ecosystem: A case study for exotic species introduction to improve environmental quality?Estuaries 19:639–650.
Gottschalk, L. C. 1945. Effects of soil erosion on navigation in upper Chesapeake Bay.Geographical Review 35:219–238.
Hargis, Jr.,W. J. 1999. The Chesapeake Bay: A Synopsis. Virginia Institute of Marine Science Press, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Glouchester Point, Virginia.
Hargis, Jr.,W. J. andD. S. Haven. 1995. The precarious state of the Chesapeake public oyster resource, p. 559–584.In P. Hill and S. Nelson (eds.), Proceedings of the 1994 Chesapeake Research Conference, Toward a Sustainable Coastal Watershed: The Chesapeake Experiment. Chesapeake Research Consortium No. 149, Chesapeake Research Consortium, Edgewater, Maryland.
Haskin, H. H., L. A. Stauber, andJ. G. Mackin. 1966.Minchinia nelsoni n. sp. (Haplosporida, Haplosporidiidia): Causative agent of the Delaware Bay oyster epizootic.Science 153:1414–1416.
Hayes, M. O. 1978. Impact of hurricanes on sedimentation in estuaries, bays, and lagoons, p. 323–346.In M. L. Wiley (ed.), Estuarine Interactions. Academic Press, New York.
Hennnessey, T. M. 1994. Governance and adaptive management for estuarine ecosystems: The case of Chesapeake Bay.Coastal Management 22:119–145.
Hirschberg, D. J., P. Chin, H. Feng, J. K. Cockran. 1996. Dynamics of sediment and contaminant tranport in the Hudson River Estuary: Evidence from sediment disturbance of naturally occurring radionucleotides.Estuaries 19:931–949.
Hough, B. F. 1882. Report Upon Forestry. Volume III, Department of agriculture, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Hyland, J. L., T. J. Herlinger, T. R. Snouts, A. H. Ringwood, R. F. van Dolah, C. T. Hackney, G. A. Nelson, J. S. Rosen, andS. A. Kokkiankis. 1996. Environmental Quality of Estuaries of the Carolina Provience: 1994. A Statistical Summary for the 1994 EMAP-Estuaries Demonstration Project of the Carolina Province. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Technical Memorandum NOS ORCA 97, Office of Ocean Resources Conservation and Assessment, Silver Spring, Maryland.
Jaworski, N. A. 1990. Retrospective of the water quality issues of the upper Potomac estuary.Aquatic Science 3:11–40.
Jaworski, N. A., P. M. Groffman, A. A. Keller, andJ. C. Prager. 1992. A watershed nitrogen and phosphorus balance: The upper Potomac River basin.Estuaries 15:83–95.
Jeffries, H. P. 1962. Environmental characteristics of Raritan Bay, a polluted estuary.Limnology and Oceanography 7:21–31.
Kemp, W. M., R. T. R. Twilley, J. C. Stevenson, W. R. Boyton, andJ. C. Means. 1983. The decline of submerged vascular plants in the Upper Chesapeake Bay: Summary of results concerning possible causes.Journal of Marine Technology Society 17:78–79.
Kennedy, V. S. andL. L. Breisch. 1981. Maryland's Oysters: Research and Management. Publication No. UM-SG-TS-81-04, Maryland Sea Grant College, University of Maryland. College Park, Maryland.
Kennedy, V. S. andL. L. Breisch. 1983. Sixteen decades of political management of the oyster fishery in Maryland's Chesapeake Bay.Journal of Environmental Management 16:153–171.
Kent, B. W. 1986. Making Dead Oysters Talk: Techniques for Analyzing Oysters Shells from Archeological Sites. Maryland Historical Trust. Amsterdam, Maryland.
Klein, P. S. andA. Hoogenboom. 1973. History of Pennsylvania. McGraw Hill Book Company, New York.
Klein, R. D. 1979. Urbanization and stream quality impairment.Water Resources Bulletin 15:948–963.
Kuenzler, E. J. 1989. The value of forested wetlands as filters for sediments and nutrients, p. 85–96.In D. L. Hook and L. Ross (eds.). The Forested Wetlands of the Southern United States. General Technical Report SE-50, Southeastern Forest Experimental Station, Asheville, North Carolina.
Kuenzler, E. J. andN. J. Craig. 1986 Land use and nutrient yields of the Chowan River watershed, p. 77–107.In D. L. Correll (ed.), Water Research Perspectives. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
Kuhlman, E. G. 1978. The devastation of American chestnut by blight, p. 1–3.In W. L. MacDonald, F. C. Cech, J. Luchak, and C. Smith (eds.), Proceedings of the American Chestnut Symposium, West Virginia University Press, Morgantown, West Virginia.
Land, A. G. 1969. The tobacco staple and the planter's problems: Technology, labor, crops.Agricultural History 43:69–86.
Lemon, J. T. 1972. The Best Poor Man's Country. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland.
Limburg, K. andR. Schmidt. 1990. Patterns of fish spawning in Hudson River tributaries—Response to an environmental gradient?Ecology 71:1231–1245.
Macissac, H. J., W. G. Sprules, O. E. Johannsson, andJ. H. Leach. 1992. Filtering impacts of larval and sessile zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) in western Lake Erie.Oecologia 92:30–39.
Mackie, G. L., W. N. Gibbons, B. W. Muncaster, andI. M. Gray. 1989. The Zebra Mussel,Dreissena polymorpha: A Synthesis of European Experiences and a Preview for North America. Queen's Printer for Ontario, Ontario, Canada.
Mackin, J. G., H. M. Owen, andA. Collier. 1950. Preliminary note on the occurrence of a new protistan parasite,Dermocystidium marinum, n. sp. inCrassostrea virginica (Gmelin).Science 111:328–329.
Malone, T. C., W. Boynton, T. Horton, andC. Stevenson. 1993. Nutrient loadings to surface waters: Chesapeake Bay Case Study, p. 8–38.In M. F. Uman (ed.), Keeping Pace with Science and Engineering, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
Manderson, J. P., B. A. Phelan, A.W. Stoner, andJ. Hilbert. 2000. Predator-prey relations between age-1+summer flounder (Paralichthys dentatus, Linnaeus) and age-0 winter flounder (Pseudopleuronectes americanus, Walbaum): Predator diets, prey selection, and effects of sediments and macrophytes.Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 251:17–39.
McCormick-Ray, M. G. 1998. Oyster reefs in the 1878 seascape pattern—Winslow revisited.Estuaries 21:784–800.
McMahon, G. andO. B. Lloyd, Jr. 1995. Water-quality Assessment of the Albemarle-Pamlico Drainage Basin, North Carolina and Virginia—Environmental Setting and Water-Quality Issues. Open file report 95-136, U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.
Miller, H. M. 1986. Transforming a “splendid and delightsome land”: Colonists and ecological change in the Chesapeake 1607–1820.Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 76:173–187.
Mills, E. L., D. L. Strayer, M. D. Scheurell, andJ. T. Carlton. 1996. Exotic species in the Hudson River Basin: A history of invarsions and introduction.Estuaries 19:814–823.
Molnar, P. 1986. The structure of mountain ranges.Scientific American 255:70–79.
Mooney, H. A. andJ. A. Drake. (Eds.). 1986. Ecology of Biological Invasions of North America and Hawaii. Springer, New York.
Murawski, S. A. andA. L. Pacheco. 1977. Biological and Fisheries Data on Atlantic Sturgeon,Acipenser oxyrhynchus (Mitchill). Technical Series Report No. 10, Sandy Hook Laboratory, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Highlands, New Jersey.
Newell, R. I. E. 1988. Ecological changes in the Chesapeake Bay: Are they the result of overharvesting the American oyster (Crassostrea virginica?) p. 536–546.In M. P. Lynch and E. C. Krome (eds.), Understanding the Estuary: Advances in Chesapeake Bay Research, Chesapeake Research Consortium Publication 129, Chesapeake Research Consortium, Edgewater, Maryland.
Nichols, A. J. 1937. The Oyster-Packing Industry of Baltimore, It's History and Current Problems. Bulletin of the Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, Contribution No. 11, University of Maryland, Solomons Island, Maryland.
Office of Technology Assessment. 1993. Harmful Nonindigenous Species in the United States, OTA-F-565. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Officer, C. B., R. B. Briggs, J. L. Taft, L. E. Cronin, M. A. Tyler, andW. R. Boynton. 1984. Chesapeake Bay anoxia: Origin, development, and significance.Science 223:22–27.
Orth, R. J. andK. A. Moore. 1983. Chesapeake Bay: An unprecedented decline in submerged aquatic vegetation.Science 222:51–53.
Orth, R. J., J. F. Nowak, G. F. Anderson, D. J. Wilcox, J. R. Whiting, and L. S. Nagey. 1996. Distribution of Submerged Aquatic Vegetation in the Chesapeake Bay and Tributaries and Chincoteague Bay—1995. Final Report to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Chesapeake Bay Program, Annapolis, Maryland.
Orth, R. J., J. F. Nowak, D. J. Wilcox, J. R. Whiting, and L. S. Nagey. 1998. Distribution of Submerged Aquatic Vegetation in the Chesapeake Bay and Tributaries and Chincoteague Bay—1997. Final Report to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Chesapeake Bay Program, Annapolis, Maryland.
Ostrander, C. W. andW. E. Price, Jr. 1940. Minerals of Maryland. The Natural History Society of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland.
Palmer, T. 1996. America by Rivers. Island Press, Washington, D.C.
Pardieck, R. A., R. J. Orth, R. J. Diaz, andR. N. Lipcius. 1999. Ontogenetic changes in habitat use by postlarvae and young juveniles of the blue crab.Marine Ecology Progress Series 186: 227–238.
Paynter, Jr.K. T. 1996. Introduction to the 1996 edition, p. ix-xxxi.In W. K. Brooks (ed.), The Oyster, The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
Pearson, J. C. 1942. The fish and fisheries of colonial Virginia. Second Installment.William and Mary College Quarterly Historical Magazine 22:353–360.
Poag, C. W. 1999. Chesapeake Invader, Discovering America's Giant Meteor Crater. Princeton University Press, Princeton New Jersey.
Pritchard, D. W. 1967. Observations of circulation in coastal plain estuaries, p. 37–44.In G. H. Lauff (ed.), Estuaries. American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C.
Pryor, E. B. 1984. Agricultural Implements Used by Middle-Class Farmers in the Colonial Chesapeake. The National Colonial Farm Research Report No. 16, The Accokeek Foundation, Inc., Accokeek, Maryland.
Reinharz, E. 1981. Animal Sediment Relationships: A Case Study of the Patapsco River. Maryland Geological Survey, Baltimore, Maryland.
Rodith, H. A., N. F. Caraco, J. J. Cole, andD. L. Strayer. 1996. Filtration of Hudson River water by the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha).Estuaries 19:824–832.
Roman, C. T., N. Jaworski, F. T. Short, S. Findlay, andR. S. Warren. 2000. Estuaries of the Northeastern United States: Habitat and Land Use Signatures.Estuaries 23:743–764.
Rothschild, B. J., J. S. Ault, P. Goulletquer, andM. Heral. 1994. Decline of the Chesapeake Bay oyster population: A century of habitat destruction and overfishing.Marine Ecological Progress Series 111:29–39.
Russell, E. W. B. 1980. Vegetation change in northern New Jersey from precolonialization to present: A palynological interpretation.Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 107:432–446.
Russell, E. W. B., R. B. Davis, R. S. Anderson, T. E. Rhodes, andD. S. Anderson. 1993. Recent centuries of vegetation change in the glaciated north-eastern United States.Journal of Ecology 81:647–664.
Sanders, C. J., R. W. Stark, E. J. Mullins, andJ. Murphy. (eds.). 1985. Recent Advances in Spruce Budworms Research. Proceedings of the CANUSA Spruce Budworms Research Symposium, Bangor, Maine, September 16–20, 1984. Canadian Forest Service, Ottawa, Canada.
Schneider, D. W. 1996. Effects of European settlement and land use on regional patterns of similarity among Chesapeake forests.Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 123:223–239.
Schubel, J. R. 1974. Effects of tropical stormAgnes on the suspended solids of the northern Chesapeake Bay, p. 113–132.In R. J. Gibbs (ed.), Suspended Sediments in Water. Plenum, New York.
Schueler, T. 1994. The importance of imperiousness.Watershed Protection Techniques 1:100–111.
Scott, J. 1807. A Geographical Description of the States of Maryland and Virginia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Secor, D. H. andT. E. Gunderson. 1998. Effects of hypoxia and temperature on survival, growth, and respiration of juvenile Atlantic sturgeon,Acipenser oxyrhinchus.Fisheries Bulletin 96:603–613.
Secor, D. H. andJ. R. Waldman. 1999. Historical abundance of Delaware Bay Atlantic sturgeon and potential rate of recovery.American Fisheries Society Symposium 23:203–216.
Seliger, H. H., J. A. Boggs, andW. H. Biggley. 1985. Catastrophic anoxia in the Chesapeake Bay in 1984.Science 228: 70–73.
Setzler-Hamilton, E. M. 1987. Utilization of Chesapeake Bay by early life history stages of fishes, p. 63–93.In S. K. Majumdar, L. W. Hall, Jr., and H. M. Austin (eds.), Contaminant Problems and Management of Living Chesapeake Bay Resources. The Pennsylvania Academy of Science, Type House of Easton, Phillipsburg, New Jersey.
Sharrer, G. T. 1988. The Patuxent fisheries: Transformations of a rural economy 1880–1985, p. 1–20.In P. J. Johnson (ed.), Working the Water: The Commercial Fisheries of Maryland's Patuxent River. Calvert Marine Museum and The University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.
Sindermann, C. J. andA. Rosenfield. 1967. Principal diseases of commercially important marine bivalve molluscs and crustacea.Fisheries Bulletin 66:335–385.
Smith, J. 1612. The proceedings of the English Colonie in Virginia, 1606–1612, Volume 1.In E. Arber (ed.), 1910. Travels and Works of Captain John Smith. Burt Franklin, New York.
Stanley, D. W. 1992. Historical Trends: Water Quality and Fisheries, Albemarle-Pamlico Sounds, with Emphasis on the Pamlico River Estuary. University of North Carolina Sea Grant College Program Publication UNC-SG-92-04. Institute for Coastal and Marine Resources, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina.
Steel, J. 1991. Albemarle-Pamlico Estuarine System: Technical Analysis of Status and Trends. Albemarle-Pamlico Estuarine Study Report 90-01. North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources and Environmental Protection Agency National Estuary Program, Raleigh, North Carolina.
Stevenson, C. H. 1894. The Oyster Industry in Maryland, p. 203–297.In M. McDonald (Commissioner), Volume 12 for 1892, Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Swain, J. M. and F. C. Craighead. 1924. Studies on the Spruce Budworm. Part I. A General Account of the Outbreak. Canadian Department of Agriculture Bulletin 37, New Series, Ottawa, Canada.
Terborgh, J. 1989. Where Have All the Birds Gone? Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
Turner, R. E.. 2001. Of Manatees, Mangroves, and the Mississippi River: Is There An Estuarine Signature for the Gulf of Mexico?Estuaries 24:139–150.
U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1975. Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, Bicentennial Edition, Part 2, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington D.C.
U.S. Department of Commerce. 1973. Fisheries Statistics of the United States, 1972. National Marine Fisheries Service Statistical Digest 66, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington D.C.
U.S. Department of Commerce. 1974. Fisheries Statistics of the United States, 1973. National Marine Fisheries Service Statistical Digest 67, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington D.C.
U.S. Department of Commerce. 1990. Estuaries of the United States, Vital Statistics of a National Resource Base. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Rockville, Maryland.
U.S. Department of Commerce. 1992. Monthly Station Normals of Temperature, Precipitation, and Heating and Cooling Degree Days, 1961–90. Climatography of the United States. No. 81. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Climatic Data Center, Asheville, North Carolina.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1983a. Chesapeake Bay: A Framework for Action. Region 3, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1983b. Chesapeake Bay: A Profile of Environmental Change. Region 3, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1999. State of the Chesapeake Bay. Chesapeake Bay Program, Annapolis, Maryland.
van Zandt, R. 1971. Chronicles of the Hudson. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey.
Ward, L. W. andD. S. Powers. 1991. Tertiary lithology and paleontology, Chesapeake Bay region, p. 161–201.In A. Schultz and E. Compton-Gooding (eds.), Geological Evolution of the Eastern United States, Virginia Museum of Natural History, Martinsville, Virginia.
Watts, W. A. 1979. Late Quaternary vegetation of central Appalachia and the New Jersey coastal plain.Ecological Monographs 49:427–469.
Wharton, J. 1957. The Bounty of the Chesapeake, Fishing in Colonial Virginia. Virginia 350th Anniversary Celebration, Williamsburg, Virginia.
Witty, A. andP. J. Johnson. 1988. An introduction to the catalog of artifacts, p. 55–180.In P. J. Johnson (ed.), Working the Water: The Commercial Fisheries of Maryland's Patuxent River. Calvert Marine Museum and The University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Paul, R.W. Geographical signatures of middle Atlantic estuaries: Historical layers. Estuaries 24, 151–166 (2001). https://doi.org/10.2307/1352941
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1352941