Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Paternalism as A Predictor of Leadership Behaviors: A Bi-Level Analysis

  • Published:
Eurasian Business Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study investigated whether cultural values of paternalism measured at the leaders’ individual and societal level relate to leadership behaviors of managers. The findings indicated that paternalistic values are important determinants of leadership behaviors; however, the influence of paternalism on leaders’ behavioral choices was not common across the two levels of analysis. Societal level paternalism was related with structural leadership, while self-referenced ratings of paternalistic values showed a significant linkage with human resource and symbolic leadership.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adler, N.J., 1997. International dimensions of organizational behavior. Cincinnati, Ohio: South-Western College Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahmad, K., 1976. Islam: Its meaning and message. London: Islamic council of Europe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ali, A., 1986. The Arab Excutive: A study in values and work organizations. American-Arab Affairs, 19, pp. 94–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ali, A., 1993. Decision-making style, indivisualism, and attitude toward risk of Arab executives. International Studies of Management and Organization, 23(3), pp.53–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allport, G.W., 1955. Becoming: Basic considerations for a psychology of personality. New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Au, K.Y., 1999. Intra-cultural variation: Evidence and implications for international business. Journal of International Business Studies, 30(4), pp.799–812.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aycan, Z., Kanungo, R.N., Mendonca, M., Yu, K., Deller, J., Stahl, G., and Khursid, A., 2000. Impact of culture on human resource management practices: A 10-country comparison. Applied Psychology-an International Review-Psychologie Appliquee-Revue Internationale, 49(1), pp.192–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aycan, Z., 2006. Paternalism: Towards conceptual refinement and operationalization. In: K.S. Yang, K.K. Hwang, and U. Kim, eds. Scientific advances in indigenuous psychologies: Empirical, philosophical and cultural contributions. London: Cambridge University Press, pp.445–466.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aycan, Z. and Kanungo, R.N., 1998. Impact of accultration on socialization beliefs and behavioral occurances among Indo-Canadian immigrants. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 29(3), pp.451–467.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bardi, A. and Schwartz, S.H., 2003. Values and behavior: Strength and structure of relations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, pp.1207–1220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beekun, R.I. and Badawi, J., 1999. Leadership: An Islamic perspective, Belstville, Maryland: Amana Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bensimon, H., 1989. The meaning of good presidential leadership. The Review of Higher Education, 12(3), pp.107–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blake, R. and Mounton, J., 1985. The managerial grid III: The key to leadership excellence. Houston: Gulf Publishing CO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bolman, L.G. and Deal, T.E., 1990. Leadership orientations instrument. San Francisco: Jossy-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bolman, L.G. and Deal, T.E., 1991. Leadership and management effectiveness: A multiframe, multisector analysis. Human Resource Management, 30(4), pp.509–534.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bolman, L.G. and Deal, T.E., 1992. Leading and managing — Effects of context, culture, and gender. Educational Administration Quarterly, 28(3), pp.314–329.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bolman, L.G. and Deal, T.E., 2003. Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice, and leadership. San Francisco, Calif.: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Briggs, S.R. and Cheek, J.M., 1986. The Role of Factor Aanalysis in the Evaluation of Personality Scales. Journal of Personality, 54, pp.106–148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brislin, R.W., 2000. Understanding culture’s infleunce on behavior. Toronto: Wardsworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, B.S., Huang, M.P., and Chou, L.F., 2002. Paternalistic leadership and its effectiveness: Evidence from Chinese organizational teams. Journal of Psychology in Chinese Societies, 3(1), pp.85–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, B.S. and Jiang, D.Y., 2000. Supervisory loyalty in Chinese business enterprises: The relative effects of emic and imposed-etic constructs on employee effectiveness. Indigenous phsychological research in Chinese Societies, 14, pp.65–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chhokar, J.S., 2007. Diversity and complexity in action. In: J.S. Chhokar, F.C. Brodbeck and R.J. House, eds. Culture and leadership across the world. New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp.971–1020.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chirkov, V.I., Ryan, R.M., Kim, Y., and Kaplan, U., 2003. Differentiating autonomy from indivisualism and independence: A self determination theory perspective on internalization of cultural orientation and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, pp.97–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chirkov, V.I., Ryan, R.M., and Willness, C., 2005. Cultural context and psychological needs in Canada and Brazil — Testing a self-determination approach to the internalization of cultural practices, identity, and well-being. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 36(4), pp.423–443.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cropanzano, R. and Mitchell, M.S., 2005. Social exchange theory: An interdisciplinary review. Journal of Management, 31(6), pp.874–900.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dorfman, P.W., and Howell, J.P., 1988. Dimensions of national culture and effective leadership patterns: Hofstede revisited. Advances in International Comparative Management, 3, pp.127–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elenkov, D.S. and Manev, I.M., 2005. Top management leadership and influence on innovation: The role of sociocultural context. Journal of Management, 31(3), pp.381–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farh, J.L. and Cheng, B.S., 2000. A cultural analysis of paternalistic leadership in chinese organizations. In: J.T. Li, A.S. Tsui, and E. Weldo, eds. Management and organizations in the Chinese context. London: Macmillan, pp.84–130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, R., 2006. Congruence and functions of personal and cultural values: Do my values reflect my culture’s values? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(11), pp.1419–1431.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gelfand, M.J., Erez, M., and Aycan, Z., 2007. Cross-cultural organizational behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, pp.479–514.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geletkanycz, M.A., 1997. The salience of ‘culture’s consequences’: The effects of cultural values on top executive commitment to the status quo. Strategic Management Journal, 18(8), pp.615–634.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gerhart, B. and Fang, M., 2005. National culture and human resource management: Asuumptions and evidence. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 16(6), pp.975–990.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hardy, C., 1991. Pluralism, power and collegiality in universities. Finanacial Accountability and Management, 7(3), pp.127–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heimovics, R.D., Herman, R.D., and Coughlin, C.L.J., 1993. Executive leadership and resource dependence in nonprofit organizations — A frame analysis. Public Administration Review, 53(5), pp.419–427.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede, G., 1980. Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related value. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede, G., 1983. National cultures in four dimensions: A research theory of cultural diffrences among nations. International Studies of Management Organization, 13, pp.46–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • House, R.J., 1996. Path-goal theory of leadership: Lessons, legacy, and a reformulated theory. Leadership Quarterly, 7(3), pp.323–352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • House, R.J., Hanges, P.J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P.W., and Gupta, V. eds., 2004. Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • House, R.J., Wright, N.S., and Aditya, R.N., 1997. Cross-cultural research on organizational leadership. In: P.C. Earley and M. Erez, eds. New perspectives in international industrial organizational psychology. San Francisco: New Lexington, pp.535–625.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hui, M.K., Au, K., and Fock, H., 2004. Empowerment effects across cultures. Journal of International Business Studies, 35(1), pp.46–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Inghilleri, P., 1999. From subjective experience to cultural change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • James, K., Chen, D.L., and Cropanzano, R., 1996. Culture and leadership among Taiwanese and U.S. workers: Do values infleunce leadership ideals. In: M.N. Ruderman, M.W. Haughes-James, and S.E. Jackson, eds. Selected research on work team diversity. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association/Center for Creative Leadership, pp.33–52.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kabasakal, H. and Bodur, M., 2007. Leadership and culture in Turkey: A multi-faceted phenomenon’. In: J.S. Chhokar, F.C. Brodbeck, and R.J. House, eds. Culture and leadership across the world. New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp.835–875.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kagitcibasi, C., 1996. The autonomus-relational self: A new synthesis. European Psychologist, 1(3), pp.180–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kagitcibasi, C., 1997. Indivisualism and collectivism. In: J.W. Berry, M.H. Segall and C. Kagitcibasi, eds. Hanbook of cross-cultural psychology. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon, pp.1–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kakar, S., 2008. A psychoanalytic study of childhood and society in India. New Delhi, India: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanungo, R.N. and Aycan, Z., 1997. Organizational cultures and human resource practices from a cross-cultural perspective. Paper presented in a symposium conducted at the Canadian Psychological Association annual conference. Toronto.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerfoot, D. and Knights, D., 1993. Management, masculinity and manipulation — From paternalism to corporate strategy in financial services in Britain. Journal of Management Studies, 30(4), pp.659–677.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, U.M., 1994. Significance of paternalism and communalism in the occupational welfare system of korean firms: A national survey. In: U. Kim, H.C. Triandis, C. Kagitcibasi, S. Choi, and G. Yoon, eds. Indivisualism and collectivism: Theory, method and applications. London: Sage Publications, pp.251–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolb, D.A., 1984. Experiential learning as the source of learning and development. Eaglewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lu, L., 2006. Cultural fit: Individual and societal discrepancies in values, beliefs, and subjective well-being. Journal of Social Psychology, 146(2), pp.203–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martinez, P.G., 2005. Paternalism as a positive form of leadership in the Latin American context. In: M. Elvria and A. Davila, eds. Managing human resources in Latin America: An agenda for international leaders. Oxford, UK: Routledge Publishers, pp.75–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Misumi, J. and Peterson, M.F., 1985. The performance-maintenance (Pm) theory of leadership: Review of a Japanese research program. Administrative Science Quarterly, 30(2), pp.198–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, T. and Pavett, C.M., 1992. Management Style and Productivity in 2 Cultures. Journal of International Business Studies, 23(1), pp.169–179.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mustafa, G. and Lines, R., 2012. The triple role of values in culturally adapted leadership styles. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, forthcomig.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nahavandi, A., 1997. The art and science of leadership. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Offermann, L.R. and Hellmann, P.S., 1997. Culture’s consequences for leadership behavior: National values in action. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 28(3), pp.342–351.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Offerman, L.R., 2004. Empowerment. In: J.M. Burns, G.R. Goethals, and G. Sorenson, eds. Encyclopedia of leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp.434–437.

    Google Scholar 

  • Osland, J.S., De Franco, S., and Osland, A., 1999. Organizational implications of Latin American culture: Lessons for the expatriate manager. Journal of Management Inquiry, 8(2), pp.219–234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oyserman, D., Coon, H.M., and Kemmelmeier, M., 2002. Rethinking indivisualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 128(1), pp.3–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pasa, S., 2000. Leadership influence in a high power distance and collectivist culture. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 21(8), pp.414–426.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pasa, S.L., Kabaskal, H., and Bodur, M., 2001. Society, organizations and leadership in Turkey. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 50(4), pp.559–589.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pellegrini, E.K. and Scandura, T.A., 2006. Leader-member exchange (LMX), paternalism, and delegation in the Turkish business culture: An empirical investigation. Journal of International Business Studies, 37(2), pp.264–279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pellegrini, E.K. and Scandura, T.A., 2008. Paternalistic leadership: A review and agenda for future research. Journal of Management, 34(3), pp.844–844.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pellegrini, E.K., Scandura, T.A., and Jayaraman, V., 2010. Cross-cultural generalizability of paternalistic leadership: An expansion of leader-member exchange theory. Group and Organization Management, 35(4), pp.391–420.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pettigrew, A.M., 1977. Strategy formulation as a political process. International Studies of Management and Organization, 7(2), pp.78–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quinn, R.E., 1988. Beyong rational management: Mastering paradoxes and competing demands of high effectiveness. San Francisco: Jossy-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rahman, A., 1990. Muhammad as a military leader. Lahore, Pakistan: Islamic Publication.

    Google Scholar 

  • Redding, S.G. and Hsiao, H.M., 1995. An empirical study of overseas Chinese managerial ideology. In: H.S.R. Kao, D. Sinha, and N. Sek-Hong, eds. Effective organizations and social values. New Delhi: Sage, pp.72–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robert, C., Probst, T.M., Martocchio, J.J., Drasgow, F., and Lawler, J.J., 2000. Empowerment and continuous improvement in the United States, Mexico, Poland, and India: Predicting fit on the basis of the dimensions of power distance and individualism. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(5), pp.643–658.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodrigues, C.A., 1991. The situation and national culture as contingencies for leadership behavior: Two conceptual models. In: S.B. Parsad, ed. Advances in international comparative management. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, pp.51–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rohan, M.Z. and Zanna, M.P., 1998. The products of socialization: A discussion of self regulatory strategies and value systems. In: J. Cooper and J.M. Darley eds. Attribution and social interaction: The legacy of Edward E. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, pp.279–292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R.M. and Deci, E.L., 2000. Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), pp.68–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R.M. and Deci, E.L., 2003. On assimilationg identities to the self: A self-determination theory perspective on internalization and integrity within cultures. In: M.R. Leary and J.P. Tangney, eds. Handbook on self and identity. New York: Guilford, pp.253–274.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, S.M. and Yeh, R., 1992. The structure of leader influence. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 23(2), pp.251–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, S.C. and De Meyer, A., 1991. Interpreting and responding to strategic issues: The impact of national culture. Strategic Management Journal, 12(4), pp.307–320.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S.H. and Bilsky, W., 1990. Toward a theory of the universal content and structure of values: Extensions and cross-cultural replications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(5), pp.878–891.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S.H., 1992. Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. In: M. Zanna, ed. Advances in experimental social psychology. New York: Academic Press, pp.1–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S.H., 1994. Cultural dimensions of values: Toward an understanding of national differences. In: U. Kim, H.C. Triandis, C. Kagitcibasi, S. Choi, and G. Yoon, eds. Indivisualism and collectivism: Theory, method and application. Thousand Oaks California: Sage, pp.85–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Segal, S.P., Rhonda, M., Jean-Pierre, R., and Cato, M.L., 1998. Toward validation of Dorfman and Howell’s culture scale in a multicultural sample. Proceedings of the Academy of Business Adminsitration: Golbal Trends Conferences.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seymour, S.C., 1999. Women, family and child care in India: A world in transition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sinha, J.B., 1980. The nurturant task leader. New Delhi: Concept.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sinha, J.B., 1990. Work culture in Indian context. New Delhi: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sinha, J.B., 1995. The cultural context of leadership and power. New Delhi: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, P.B. and Peterson, M.F., 1994. Leadership as an event management: A cross-cultural survey based on 25 nations. International Congress of Psychology, Madrid.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stogdill, R.M., 1974. Handbook of leadership: A survey of theory and research. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Triandis, H.C., 1989. The self and social-behavior in differing cultural contexts. Psychological Review, 96(3), pp.506–520.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Triandis, H.C., 1995. Indivisualism and collectivism. Boluder, CO: Westview Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Uhl-Bien, M. and Maslyn, M., 2005. Paternalism as a form of leadership: Differentiating paternalism from leader memebr exchange. Paper presented at the meeting of Academy of Management. Honolulo, Hawaii.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vauclair, C.M., 2009. Desired or desirable values? Considering morality in cross-cultural value research and its implications for research and measurement. Makenzie Business Review, 10(3), pp.60–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wan, C., Chiu, C.Y., Tam, K.P., Lee, S.L., Lau, I.Y., and Peng, S., 2007. Perceived cultural importance and actual self-importance of values in cultural identification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(2), pp.337–354.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yan, J. and Hunt, J.G., 2005. A cross cultural perspective on perceived leadership effectiveness’. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 5(1), pp.49–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yelsma, P. and Athappilly, K., 1988. Marital satisfaction and communication practices: Comparisons among Indian and American couples. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 19(1), pp.37–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yukl, G.A., 1998. Leadership in oraganizations. Eaglewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall International.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zaidman, N. and Brock, D.M., 2009. Knowledge transfer within multinationals and their foreign subsidiaries: A culture-context approach. Group and Organization Management, 34(3), pp.297–329.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Norwegian School of Economics, Bergen, Norway

    Ghulam Mustafa & Rune Lines

Authors
  1. Ghulam Mustafa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Rune Lines
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ghulam Mustafa.

Additional information

We would like to thank Lee G. Bolman for his permission to use the Leadership Orientations Survey.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Mustafa, G., Lines, R. Paternalism as A Predictor of Leadership Behaviors: A Bi-Level Analysis. Eurasian Bus Rev 2, 63–92 (2012). https://doi.org/10.14208/BF03353808

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.14208/BF03353808

Keywords

Search

Navigation