Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Inlaid materials and techniques of an ancient Chinese bronze mirror

  • Regular Article
  • Published:
The European Physical Journal Plus Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

A bronze mirror was unearthed at Xi’an, China, the capital of the Sui dynasty (581–618 AD). The utilized inlay technique is unique and no similar mirrors have been found in China. This study analyzed the structure and composition of the inlays via digital microscopy, metallography, scanning electron microscopy and energy disperse spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence and Raman spectroscopy. The results identified the mirror as a casted high-tin bronze, and each inlaid block included four layers: a mineral base layer (clay and raw lacquer), a gold leaf layer (made of native gold), a pigment layer (malachite and minium) and a glass layer (high-lead glass and sodium-calcium glass). The soda-lime glass is a plant ash glass that likely originated from the Sassanid area. The utilized techniques involved the two crafts of gold pasting (Tie Jin) and pigment filling (Tian Cai). Pigment filling was rarely used in bronze works of the Sui dynasty. This study provides new information on the ancient Chinese bronze mirror-making technology.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. X. Gao, G. Yang, Study on the warring states bronze mirrors with special techniques earthed from Luoyang. Cult. Relics Cent. China 5, 51–61 (2007). (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  2. F. Jvyou, On special artistic mirrors of spring and autumn, warring states periods and Han dynasties. Collectors 3, 51–58 (2009). (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  3. Hyogo Prefectural Museum of Archaeology, Koku collection-mirror. Hyogo Prefectural Museum of Archaeology 14–266 (2017) (in Japanese)

  4. L. Museum, Bronze Mirrors Unearthed in Luoyang (Cultural Relics Press, Beijing, 1988), pp. 2–16. (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  5. S. Li, Tang bronze mirrors with special techniques in Sanmenxia. Cult. Relics Cent. China 3, 54–58 (1999). (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  6. G. Shang, Tang bronze mirrors with special techniques. Cult. Relics South. China 1(76–80), 86 (2008). (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  7. H. Wei, Tang mirrors of Yin Bei Jing collected in museum. Cult. Relics World 6, 56–58 (2016). (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  8. X. Li, X. He, H. Wang, Fine bronze mirrors kept in Xi’an Museum. Collections 5, 114–129 (2016). (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  9. K. Koji, Research of Chinese shell inlay history—aiming at the construction of Asian shell inlay history. J. Chin. Lacq. 30(3), 4–13 (2011). (in Chinese with English abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  10. S.S.N.F. Kennon, A study of microstructure of ancient Chinese mirrors. Stud. Hist. Nat. Sci. 11(1), 54–67 (1992). (in Chinese with English abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  11. S. Zhu, T. He, Studies of Ancient Chinese Mirror and Other Bronze Artefacts, in Metal Plating and Patination—Cultural, Technical and Historical Developments, ed. by S. La Niece, P. Craddock (Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 1993), pp. 50–62

    Google Scholar 

  12. T. He, Study on Techniques of Chinese Ancient Mirrors (Forbidden City Press, Beijing, 1999), pp. 257–259. (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  13. T. He, Some questions of ancient bronze mirrors’ heat treatment. Bull. Mus. Natl. Chin. Hist. 2, 120–132 (1996). (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  14. T. He, An analysis of several bronze mirrors with a black surface layer. Acta Archaeol. Sin. 1, 119–131 (1987). (in Chinese with English abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  15. D. Tan, Wu Laiming, J. Tang et al., A research on the formation mechanism of the “silvery–white” surface of ancient Chinese mirrors. Sci. Conserv. Archaeol. 9(1), 1–9 (1997). (in Chinese with English abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  16. P. Fang, Y. Qi, J. Yang, The combination of modern restoration concept and traditional restoration technology—the protection and restoration of the gold and silver sheet inlay bronze mirror in the Tang dynasty. In: Documentary on the conservation and restoration of cultural relics - proceedings of the 8th national conference on archaeology and conservation of cultural relics (chemistry), pp. 125–130 (2004) (in Chinese)

  17. J. Hu, The new research on the types and manufacturing of the Tang Luodian mirrors. Cult. Relics Cent. China 3, 88–97 (2017). (in Chinese with English abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  18. Mu Yi, W. Luo, C. Wang, Scientific authentication of ancient mirror by SEM–EDS and Raman spectrum analysis. J. Light Scatt. 31(2), 152–159 (2019). (in Chinese with English abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  19. D. A. Scott, Some Decorative Techniques and Corrosion on Chinese Bronze Mirrors in the Cotsen Collection. In: Scientific research on ancient Asian metallurgy- proceeding of the 5th forbes symposium at the freer gallery of art, Archetype Publications, London, pp. 52–62 (2012)

  20. M. Yang, J. Yang, Study on the removal of calcification an in a bronze mirror (Jin Bei Jing) of Tang dynasty. Archaeol. Cult. Relics 5, 108–111 (2006). (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  21. D. Tan, Permeable mosaic geometric square mirror—ancient bronze mirror with many manufacturing techniques to be solved. Spec. Casting Nonferrous Alloys 33(8), 787–788 (2013). (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  22. G. Zhang, Xu Tingyun, Gold and silver sheet inlay mirrors (Jin Yin Ping Tuo Jing) of Tang dynasty. Cult. Relics 2, 81–85 (1991). (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  23. S. Fan, The name and technique of Tang Luo Dian mirror (mirror with mother of pearl inlaid). Archaeol. Cult. Relics 1, 89–94 (2014). (in Chinese with English abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  24. W.T. Chase, T.O. Ziebold, Ternary Representations of Ancient Chinese Bronze Compositions, in Archaeological Chemistry-II, ed. by G. Carter (American chemical society, Washington, DC, 1978), pp. 293–334

    Google Scholar 

  25. Y. Zhou, Identification of clay mineral mixture by Fourier Transform Infrared spectrometry. Acta Sedimentol. Sin. 5(1), 37–47 (1987). (in Chinese with English abstract)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  26. Y. Luo, Y. Zhang, Infrared spectroscopy of illite from Fengshui aluminum ore. Light Metals 8, 1–4 (1988). (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  27. A. Jiang, D. Tang, Features of the illite deposit in Xili Lianjiang Fujian Province. Geol. Fujian 16(3), 132–137 (1997). (in Chinese with English abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  28. Yu Liu, J. Song, X. Liu, Analysis of cast copper relics unearthed in Zhouyuan. Archaeol. Cult. Relics 4, 94–100 (2007). (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  29. R. Hui, C. Liu, S. Yin, Study on the pigments of murals of the Eastern Han dynasty in Xunyi, Shaanxi. Archaeol. Cult. Relics 3, 105–112 (2007). (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  30. Eskenazi (2006) A selection of early Chinese bronzes. Eskenazi, London, p. 26

  31. S. Zhou, B. Zheng, B. Cui, An analysis on the color drawing technology of bronze chain lifting kettle unearthed in Nanyang, Henan province. Cult. Relics Cent. China 1, 126–128 (2018). (in Chinese with English abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  32. X. Yang, A brief discussion on the restoration technology of bronze head with gold surface unearthed in Sanxingdui. Sichuan Cult. Relics S1, 93–96 (1992). (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  33. J. Liang, X. Huang, L. Wang, Scientific investigation of decorative layers on bronze statues excavated at Guandi Temple, Datong, Shanxi province. Sci. Conserv. Archaeol. 26(2), 28–36 (2014). (in Chinese with English abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  34. H. Keliang, Y. Li, J. Yang, Analyses of the lacquer on West Han dynasty’s excavated from Xuzhou city by FTIR. Spectrosc. Spectr. Anal. 14(5), 31–34 (1994). (in Chinese with English abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  35. P. Jin, C. Wang, Y. Zheng, Research on the lacquered techniques adopted by the urushiware excavated from the Fangwanggang site in Anhui of West Han dynasty. Sci. Conserv. Archaeol. 19(3), 44–49 (2007). (in Chinese with English abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  36. X. Cheng, Wu Shuangcheng, Y. Liu et al., Initial analysis on the adhesive in a bronze sword unearthed from East Zhou tombs in Zhoujiazhuang (Zhou Family Village), Shandong province. Sci. Conserv. Archaeol. 20(2), 34–37 (2008). (in Chinese with English abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  37. W. Huang, J. Chen, Wu Xiaohong et al., A Preliminary Study of the Composition and Manufacturing Technology of Gold Artifacts Excavated from Majiayuan Site in Gansu Provice (Science Press, Beijing, 2012), pp. 405–422. (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  38. X. Cheng, L. Tang, Mo Li et al., Research on the composition and manufacturing techniques of gold leaves of gold-covered metal ornaments excavated from Chu tombs. Sci. Conserv. Archaeol. 31(1), 10–19 (2019). (in Chinese with English abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  39. M. Bouchard, D.C. Smith, Catalogue of 45 reference Raman spectra of minerals concerning research in art history or archaeology, especially on corroded metals and coloured glass. Spectrochim. Acta Part A 59, 2247–2266 (2003)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  40. W. Jia, Bronze colored decoration of Shang and Zhou (1). Oriental Collect. 4, 49–51 (2012). (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  41. Y. Li, Development of surface colouring technology for bronze ware. China Cultural Heritage News 20 October, p. 6 (2017) (in Chinese)

  42. Q. Li, S. Liu, Su Bomin et al., Characterization of some tin-contained ancient glass beads found in China by means of SEM-EDS and Raman spectroscopy. Microsc. Res. Tech. 76, 133–140 (2013)

    Google Scholar 

  43. A.B. Babalola, L. Dussubieux, S.K. McIntosh et al., Chemical analysis of glass beads from Igbo Olokun, Ile-Ife (SW Nigeria): new light on raw materials, production, and interregional interactions. J. Archaeol. Sci. 90, 92–105 (2018)

    Google Scholar 

  44. F. Gan, Origin and development of ancient Chinese glasses. Chinese Journal of Nature 28(4), 187–193 (2006). (in Chinese with English abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  45. F. Zhao, B. Chen, Yi Chai, PXRF analysis and discussion on some glass wares unearthed in Xi’an. Archaeol. Cult. Relics 4, 111–119 (2015). (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  46. J. An, To test the early Islamic glasswares unearthed in China in recent years. Archaeology 12, 1116–1126 (1990). (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  47. X. Ren, A study on Islamic glazed wares unearthed in the basement of Famen temple. Relics Museol. 1, 68–72 (2011). (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

  48. E.V. Sayre, R.W. Smith, Compositional categories of ancient glass. Science 133, 1824–1826 (1961)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  49. J. Henderson, The raw material of early glass production. Oxf. J. Archaeol. 4(3), 267–291 (1985)

    Google Scholar 

  50. J. Henderson, J.A. Evans, H.J. Sloane et al., The use of oxygen, strontium and lead isotopes to provenance ancient glasses in the Middle East. J. Archaeol. Sci. 32, 665–673 (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  51. I.C. Freestone, K.A. Leslie, M. Thirlwall, Strontium isotopes in the investigation of early glass production: byzantine and early Islamic glass from the Near East. Archaeometry 45, 19–32 (2003)

    Google Scholar 

  52. P. Mirti, M. Pace, M.M. Negron Ponzi et al., ICP-MS analysis of glass fragments of Parthisn and Sasanian epoch from Seleucia and Ven Ardas Ir (Central Iraq). Archaeometry 50(3), 429–450 (2008)

    Google Scholar 

  53. Q. Cheng, J. Zhang, Scientific analysis and research on glass beads unearthed in Xiao mausoleum, emperor Wudi of the Northern Zhou dynasty. Archaeol. Cult. Relics 1, 107–112 (2011). (in Chinese)

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors greatly appreciate the funding obtained from the Xi’an Institute of Conservation and Archaeology. We also thank Qinghui Li, Xiaojuan Huang, Panpan Tan, Wenbin Fu, Xianting Hou and many other friends for their help with data collection and experimental analysis.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Cultural Heritage, Northwest University, Xi’an, 710069, China

    Fengyan Zhao, Manli Sun & Fude Tie

  2. Xi’an Institute of Conservation and Archaeology, Xi’an, 710068, China

    Fengyan Zhao, Chen Wu & Xiaoli Zhang

  3. Chang’an Museum, Xi’an, 710100, China

    Xiaojun Mu

Authors
  1. Fengyan Zhao
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Manli Sun
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Fude Tie
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Chen Wu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Xiaoli Zhang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Xiaojun Mu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Fengyan Zhao.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Zhao, F., Sun, M., Tie, F. et al. Inlaid materials and techniques of an ancient Chinese bronze mirror. Eur. Phys. J. Plus 135, 666 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1140/epjp/s13360-020-00634-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1140/epjp/s13360-020-00634-y

Search

Navigation