Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Differential effects of reading trainings on reading processes: a comparison in Grade 2

Differenzielle Effekte von Lesetrainings auf Leseprozesse – Ein Vergleich in Klasse 2

  • Schwerpunkt
  • Published:
Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Phonics, fluency, and reading strategy trainings are evidence-based interventions that foster the reading skills of poor readers in primary school. The purpose of the present study was to compare differential effects of the three types of trainings on the efficiency of component processes on word, sentence, and text level immediately after the training and at a 3-month follow-up. The 235 poor readers were randomly allocated to one of the reading interventions or to a control condition. All interventions consisted of 25 sessions that were scheduled twice a week and lasted 45 min. Results indicated short-term effects of the phonics training and the strategy training on the efficiency of a broad range of word-level and sentence-level processes. None of the treatment effects persisted over the long term, indicating the need for instructional efforts to regularly practice the acquired skills after the actual training.

Zusammenfassung

Phonics-, Leseflüssigkeits- und Lesestrategietrainings sind evidenzbasierte Maßnahmen zur Förderung schwacher Leser(innen) im Grundschulalter. Anliegen der hier vorgestellten Studie war die Gegenüberstellung differenzieller kurzfristiger (unmittelbar nach dem Training) und langfristiger Trainingseffekte (nach drei Monaten) auf die Effizienz kognitiver Teilprozesse des Lesens auf Wort-, Satz- und Textebene. Die teilnehmenden 235 leseschwachen Zweitklässler(innen) wurden per Zufall einem der drei Lesetrainings oder dem Kontrolltraining zugewiesen. Jedes Training bestand aus 25 Sitzungen, die zwei Mal wöchentlich im Umfang von jeweils 45 Minuten durchgeführt wurden. Die Ergebnisse zeigten kurzfristige und breite Effekte des Phonics- und Strategietrainings auf Teilprozesse der Worterkennung und der Integrationsprozesse auf Satzebene. Demgegenüber zeigten sich keine langfristigen Trainingseffekte, was die Notwendigkeit unterstreicht, die Aufrechterhaltung und Einübung der neu gelernten Fähigkeiten auch nach dem Training durch geeignete unterrichtliche Maßnahmen sicherzustellen.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, S. (1982). Phonological recoding: Is the regularity effect consistent? Memory and Cognition, 10, 565–575.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Working memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, R., Pressley, M., Van Meter, P., & Schuder, T. (1996). A quasi-experimental validation of transactional strategies instruction with low-achieving second-grade readers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 18–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cain, K., & Oakhill, J. (1999). Inference ability and its relation to comprehension failure in young children. Reading and Writing, 11, 489–503.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cattell, R. B., Weiß, R. H., & Osterland, J. (1997). Grundintelligenztestskala 1 (CFT 1) [German version of the culture fair intelligence scale]. Göttingen: Hogrefe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coltheart, M., Rastle, K., Perry, C., Langdon, R., & Ziegler, J. (2001). DRC: A dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud. Psychological Review, 108, 204–256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, A. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (1990). Assessing print exposure and orthographic processing skill in children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 733–740.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dole, J. A., Duffy, G. D., Roehler, L. R., & Pearson, P. D. (1991). Moving from the old to the new: Research on reading comprehension instruction. Review of Educational Research, 61, 239–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edmonds, M. S., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J., Reutebuch, C., Cable, A., & Tackett, K. K. (2009). A synthesis of reading interventions and effects on reading comprehension outcomes for older struggling readers. Review of Educational Research, 79, 262–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Stahl, S. A., & Willows, D. M. (2001). Systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel’s meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 71, 393–447.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Faulkner, H. J., & Levy, B. A. (1999). Fluent and nonfluent forms of transfer in reading: Words and their message. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 6, 111–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frazier, L. (1987). Sentence processing: A tutorial review. In M. Coltheart (ed.), Attention and performance (Vol. 12, pp. 559–586). Hove: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frith, U. (1986). A developmental framework for developmental dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 36, 69–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frith, U., Wimmer, H., & Landerl, K. (1998). Differences in phonological recoding in German- and English-speaking children. Scientific Studies of Reading, 2, 31–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. S. (2007). Increasing strategic reading comprehension with peer-assisted learning activities. In D. S. McNamara (ed.), Reading comprehension strategies. Theories, interventions, and technologies (pp. 175–198). Mahwah: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. S., & Burish, P. (2000). Peer-assisted learning strategies: An evidence-based practice to promote reading achievement. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 15, 85–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. S., Mathes, P. G., & Simmons, D. C. (1997). Peer-assisted learning strategies: Making classrooms more responsive to diversity. American Educational Research Journal, 34, 174–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Galuschka, K., Ise, E., Krick, K., & Schulte-Körne, G. (2014). Effectiveness of treatment approaches for children and adolescents with reading disabilities: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PLoS ONE, 9(8), e105843. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105843.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garrod, S. C., & Sanford, A. J. (1990). Referential processes in reading: Focusing on roles and individuals. In G. B. Flores d’Arcais, K. Rayner & D. Balota (eds.), Comprehension processes in reading (pp. 515–533). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gernsbacher, M. A., & Faust, M. E. (1991). The mechanism of suppression: A component of general comprehension skill. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 17, 245–262.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gold, A., Mokhlesgerami, J., Rühl, K., Schreblowski, S., & Souvignier, E. (2004). Wir werden Textdetektive (Lehrmaterial und Arbeitsheft) [We become text detectives: Teaching material and workbook]. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7, 6–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graesser, A. C., Hoffman, N. L., & Clark, L. F. (1980). Structural components of reading time. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 19, 135–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graesser, A. C., Singer, M., & Trabasso, T. (1994). Constructing inferences during narrative text comprehension. Psychological Review, 101, 371–395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, A. F., & Matthes, J. (2009). Computational procedures for probing interactions in OLS and logistic regression: SPSS and SAS implementations. Behavior Research Methods, 41, 924–936.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huemer, S., Landerl, K., Aro, M., & Lyytinen, H. (2008). Training reading fluency among poor readers in German: Many ways to one goal. Annuals of Dyslexia, 58, 115–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ise, E., Engel, R. R., & Schulte-Körne, G. (2012). Was hilft bei der Lese-Rechtschreibstörung? Ergebnisse einer Metaanalyse zur Wirksamkeit deutschsprachiger Förderansätze [What helps in case of dyslexia? Results from a meta-analysis on the effectiveness of German-speaking intervention programs]. Kindheit und Entwicklung, 21, 122–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Juul, H., Poulsen, M., & Elbro, C. (2014). Separating speed from accuracy in beginning reading development. Journal of Educational Psychology, 4, 1096–1106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klicpera, C., Rainer, S., & Gelautz, N. (2005). Einfluss eines klassenweisen Mitschüler-Tutoring auf die Entwicklung des Lesens und Rechtschreibens sowie das Sozialverhalten in der 2. Klasse Grundschule [Effects of classwide peer-tutoring on the development of reading and spelling and the social behaviour in the second grade]. Heilpädagogische Forschung, 31, 145–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knoepke, J., Richter, T., Isberner, M.-J., Naumann, J., & Neeb, Y. (2014). Phonological recoding, orthographic decoding, and comprehension skills during reading acquisition. Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft, 17(3), 447–472.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knoepke, J., Richter, T., Isberner, M.-B., Neeb, Y., & Naumann, J. (2013). Leseverstehen = Hörverstehen X Dekodieren? Ein stringenter Test der Simple View of Reading bei deutschsprachigen Grundschulkindern [Reading comprehension = Listening comprehension X decoding? A stringent test of the simple view of reading in German-speaking elementary school children]. In A. Redder & S. Weinert (eds.), Sprachförderung und Sprachdiagnostik: Interdisziplinäre Perspektiven (pp. 256–276). Münster: Waxmann.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn, M. R., & Stahl, S. A. (2003). Fluency: A review of developmental and remedial practices. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 3–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LaBerge, D., & Samuels, S. J. (1974). Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 6, 293–323.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Le Fevre, D. M., Moore, D. W., & Wilkinson, I. A. G. (2003). Tape-assisted reciprocal teaching. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 37–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lenhard, W., & Schneider, W. (2006). ELFE 1-6: Ein Leseverständnistest für Erst- bis Sechstklässler [ELFE 1-6: A reading comprehension test for children in grades one to six]. Göttingen: Hogrefe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, A., Dietzfelbinger, L., Rosseel, Y., & Steyer, R. (2014). The EffectLiteR approach for analyzing average and conditional effects. Manuscript submitted for publication.

  • Mayer, A., Nagengast, B., Fletcher, J., & Steyer, R. (2014). Analyzing average and conditional effects with multigroup multilevel structural equation models. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 304.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McArthur, G., Castles, A., Kohnen, S., Larsen, L., Jones, K., & Anandakumar, T. (2013). Sight word and phonics training in children with dyslexia. Journal of Learning Disabilities. doi:10.1177/0022219413504996.

  • McCandliss, B., Beck, I. L., Sandak, R., & Perfetti, C. (2003). Focusing attention on decoding for children with poor reading skills: Design and preliminary tests of the word building intervention. Scientific Studies of Reading, 7, 75–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKeown, M., Beck, I. L., Omanson, R. C., & Perfetti, C. A. (1983). Effects of a long-term vocabulary instruction on reading comprehension: A replication. Journal of Literacy Research, 15, 3–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McMaster, K. L., Van den Broek, P., Espin, C. A., White, M. J., Kendeou, P., & Rapp, D. N. (2012). Making the right connections: Differential effects of reading intervention for subgroups of comprehenders. Learning and Individual Differences, 22, 100–111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McRae, K., Spivey-Knowlton, M. J., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (1998). Modeling the influence of thematic fit (and other constraints) in on-line sentence comprehension. Journal of Memory and Language, 38, 283–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Müller, B., & Richter, T. (2014). Lesekompetenz [Reading competence]. In J. Grabowski (ed.), Sinn und Unsinn von Kompetenzen: Fähigkeitskonzepte im Bereich von Sprache, Medien und Kultur (pp. 29–49). Leverkusen: Budrich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Müller, B., Krizan, A., Hecht, T., Richter, T., & Ennemoser, M. (2013). Leseflüssigkeit im Grundschulalter: Entwicklungsverlauf und Effekte systematischer Leseförderung [Reading fluency in elementary school children. Developmental trajectories and effects of systematic reading interventions]. Lernen und Lernstörungen, 2, 131–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, J. D., & Burke, K. A. (2003). Activation and encoding of predictive inferences: The role of reading skill. Discourse Processes, 35, 81–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nation, K., & Snowling, M. J. (1998). Semantic processing and the development of word-recognition skills: Evidence from children with reading comprehension difficulties. Journal of Memory and Language, 39, 85–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nation, K., & Snowling, M. J. (1999). Developmental differences in sensitivity to semantic relations among good and poor comprehenders: Evidence from semantic priming. Cognition, 70, B1–B13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NICHD (2000) = National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching children to read, an evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction, reports of the subgroups (NIH Publication No. 00–4754). Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office.

  • Oakhill, J. (1993). Children’s difficulties in reading comprehension. Educational Psychology Review, 5, 223–237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oakhill, J. V., Cain, K., & Bryant, P. E. (2003). The dissociation of word reading and text comprehension: Evidence from component skills. Language and Cognitive Processes, 18, 443–468.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oulette, G. P. (2006). What’s meaning got to do with it: The role of vocabulary in word reading and reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 554–566.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paap, K. R., & Noel, R. W. (1991). Dual route models of print to sound: Still a good horse race. Psychological Research Psychologische Forschung, 53, 13–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pachella, R. G. (1974). The interpretation of reaction time in information-processing research. In B. H. Kantowitz (Ed.), Human information processing: Tutorials in performance and cognition (pp. 41–82). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palincsar, A. S., & Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and comprehension-monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction, 1, 117–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perfetti, C. A. (1985). Reading ability. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perfetti, C. A., & Hart, L. (2002). The lexical quality hypothesis. In L. Verhoeven, C. Elbro & P. Reitsma (eds.), Precursors of functional literacy (pp. 189–213). Amsterdam: John Benjamin.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Pfost, M., Hattie, J., Dörfler, T., & Artelt, C. (2014). Individual differences in reading development: A review of 25 years of empirical research on Matthew effects in reading. Review of Educational Research, 84(2), 203–244.

  • Pickering, M. J., & Garrod, S. (2007). Do people use language production to make predictions during comprehension? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 105–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pickering, M. J., & Van Gompel, R. P. G. (2006). Syntactic parsing. In M. J. Traxler & M. A. Gernsbacher (eds.), Handbook of psycholinguistics (2nd ed., pp. 455–503). London: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Raykov, T., & Marcoulides, G. A. (2004). Using the delta method for approximate interval estimation of parameter functions in SEM. Structural Equation Modeling, 11, 621–637.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richter, T., Isberner, M.-B., Naumann, J., & Kutzner, Y. (2012). Prozessbezogene Diagnostik von Lesefähigkeiten bei Grundschulkindern [Process-oriented assessment of reading skills in elementary school children]. Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie, 26, 313–331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rohrbeck, C. A., Ginsburg-Block, M. D., Fantuzzo, J. W., & Miller, T. R. (2003). Peer-assisted learning interventions with elementary school students: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 240–257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenshine, B., & Meister, C. (1994). Reciprocal teaching: A review of the research. Review of Educational Research, 64, 479–530.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenshine, B., Meister, C., & Chapman, S. (1996). Teaching students to generate questions: A review of the intervention studies. Review of Educational Research, 66, 181–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosseel, Y. (2012). Iavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48, 1–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Samuels, S. J. (1979). The method of repeated readings. The Reading Teacher, 32, 403–408.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singer, M. (1993). Causal bridging inferences: Validating consistent and inconsistent sequences. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 47, 340–359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slavin, R. E., Lake, C., Chambers, B., Cheung, A., & Davis, S. (2009). Effective reading programs for the elementary grades: A best-evidence synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 79, 1391–1466.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stanovich, K. E. (1980). Toward an interactive-compensatory model of individual differences in the development of reading fluency. Reading Research Quarterly, 16, 32–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steyer, R., & Partchev, I. (2008). EffectLite: User’s manual. A program for the uni- and multivariate analysis of unconditional, conditional and average mean differences between groups. [Computer Software and Manual]. http://www.statlite.com. Accessed 12 Feb 2015.

  • Suggate, S. P. (2010). Why what we teach depends on when: Grade and reading intervention modality moderate effect size. Developmental Psychology, 46, 1556–1579.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suggate, S. P. (2014). A meta-analysis of the long-term effects of phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, and reading comprehension interventions. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 4, 1–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Therrien, W. J. (2004). Fluency and comprehension gains as a result of repeated reading: A meta-analysis. Remedial and Special Education, 24, 252–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Topping, K. (1995). Paired reading, spelling, and writing. New York: Cassell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Topping, K. J. (2006). Paired Reading: Impact of a tutoring method on reading accuracy, comprehension and fluency. In T. Rasinski, C. Blachowicz & K. Lems (Eds.), Fluency instruction: Research-based best practice (pp. 173–191). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Torgesen, J. K., Wagner, R. K., Rashotte, C. A., Rose, E., Lindamood, P., Comway, T., et al. (1999). Preventing reading failure in young children with phonological processing disabilities. Group and individual response instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 579–593.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Torgesen, J. K., Alexander, A. W., Wagner, R. K., Rashotte, C. A., Voeller, K., & Conway, T. (2001). Intensive remedial instruction for children with severe reading disabilities: Immediate and long-term outcomes from two instructional approaches. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34, 33–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Dijk, T. A., & Kintsch, W. (1983). Strategies of discourse comprehension. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Keer, H., & Verhaeghe, J. P. (2005). Effects of explicit reading strategies instruction and peer tutoring on second and fifth graders’ reading comprehension and self-efficacy perceptions. The Journal of Experimental Education, 73, 291–329.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vellutino, F. R., Fletcher, J. M., Snowling, M. J., & Scanlon, D. M. (2004). Specific reading disability (dyslexia): What have we learned in the past four decades? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 2–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wimmer, H., Mayring, H., & Landerl, K. (1998). Poor reading: A deficit in skill automatization or a phonological deficit? Scientific Studies of Reading, 2, 321–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yuill, N. M., & Oakhill, J. V. (1988). Effects of inference awareness training on poor reading comprehension. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 2, 33–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B. J. (2002). Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview. Theory Into Practice, 41, 64–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Kassel, Holländische Str. 36–38, 34127, Kassel, Germany

    Bettina Müller &  Tobias Richter

  2. Department of Data Analysis, Ghent University, Henri Dunantlaan 1, 9000, Gent, Belgium

    Axel Mayer

  3. Department of Psychology, Justus Liebig University of Giessen, Otto-Behagel-Str. 10F, 35394, Giessen, Germany

    Ana Križan,  Teresa Hecht &  Marco Ennemoser

Authors
  1. Bettina Müller
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Axel Mayer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Tobias Richter
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Ana Križan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Teresa Hecht
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Marco Ennemoser
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Bettina Müller.

Additional information

The research reported in this article was supported by the German Ministry of Education and Research (Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung, BMBF, grant 01GJ1004). We are indepted to Janin Brandenburg for developing the control treatment and all the students, their teachers, and many student assistants for their kind collaboration. Researchers who would like to inspect the items of the ProDi-L or the materials of the trainings used in this study are invited to send an e-mail to the first or the third author.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Müller, B., Mayer, A., Richter, T. et al. Differential effects of reading trainings on reading processes: a comparison in Grade 2. Z Erziehungswiss 18, 489–512 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11618-015-0648-0

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11618-015-0648-0

Keywords

Schlüsselwörter

Search

Navigation