Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Events, narratives and memory

  • Published:
Synthese Aims and scope Submit manuscript

The other animals have memory, but, of all that we are acquainted with, none, we venture to say, except man, shares in the faculty of recollection. The cause of this is that recollection is, as it were, a mode of inference.

Aristotle.

Abstract

Whether non-human animals can have episodic memories remains the subject of extensive debate. A number of prominent memory researchers defend the view that animals do not have the same kind of episodic memory as humans do, whereas others argue that some animals have episodic-like memory—i.e., they can remember what, where and when an event happened. Defining what constitutes episodic memory has proven to be difficult. In this paper, I propose a dual systems account and provide evidence for a distinction between event memory and episodic memory. Event memory is a perceptual system that evolved to support adaptive short-term goal processing, whereas episodic memory is based on narratives, which bind event memories into a retrievable whole that is temporally and causally organized around subject’s goals. I argue that carefully distinguishing event memory from episodic memory can help resolve the debate.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. A recent exception is Rubin and Umanath’s (2015) distinction between event memory, which is based on construction of a scene, and episodic memory, which is defined as a type of event memory accompanied by a sense of reliving involving the self.

  2. This does not mean that all distortions of memory are emotional at their basis. Memory distortions encompass a wide range of phenomena such as misattribution—i.e., cases where even though some form of memory is present, it is attributed to a wrong time, place or person—and suggestibility—i.e., the tendency to incorporate information provided by others (e.g. due to misleading questions) into one’s own recollections (Schacter 1999). Rather the focus is here on one important and pervasive class of distortion that is related to narrative construction.

  3. Even though narrative capacities are closely related to linguistic capacities in humans, a narrative need not be based on language. Silent movies, picture books, comic strips are all examples of non-linguistic narratives. Testing narrative skills need not require linguistic skills either. Picture sequencing or re-enactment tasks are used to test narrative skills of young children.

References

  • Akhtar, N., & Tomasello, M. (1996). Two-year-olds learn words for absent objects and actions. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 14(1), 79–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Babb, S. J., & Crystal, J. D. (2006). Episodic-like memory in the rat. Current Biology, 16(13), 1317–1321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baldwin, D. A., Baird, J. A., Saylor, M. M., & Clark, M. A. (2001). Infants parse dynamic action. Child Development, 72(3), 708–717.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berman, R. A. (1988). On the ability to relate events in narrative. Discourse Processes, 11(4), 469–497.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernecker, S. (2008). The metaphysics of memory. Dordrecht: Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Black, J. B., & Bower, G. H. (1980). Story Understanding as Problem-solving. Poetics, 9(1–3), 223–250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blank, H., Musch, J., & Pohl, R. F. (2007). Hindsight bias: On being wise after the event. Social Cognition, 25(1), 1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boltz, M. (1992). Temporal accent structure and the remembering of filmed narratives. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 18(1), 90–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bower, G. H., Black, J. B., & Turner, T. J. (1979). Scripts in memory for text. Cognitive Psychology, 11(2), 177–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boyer, P. (2008). Evolutionary economics of mental time travel? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12(6), 219–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brewer, W. F., & Lichtenstein, E. H. (1982). Stories are to entertain: A structural-affect theory of stories. Journal of Pragmatics, 6(5–6), 473–486.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buckner, R. L., & Carroll, D. C. (2007). Self-projection and the brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11(2), 49–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, J. (1994). Past, space, and self. Cambridge: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carruthers, P. (2007). Meta-cognition in animals: A skeptical look. Mind and Language, 22(1), 58–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, S., & Werning, M. (2015). What is episodic memory if it is a natural kind? Synthese, 1–41.

  • Clayton, N. S., & Dickinson, A. (1998). Episodic-like memory during cache recovery by scrub jays. Nature, 395(6699), 272–274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clayton, N. S., & Russell, J. (2009). Looking for episodic memory in animals and young children: Prospects for a new minimalism. Neuropsychologia, 47(11), 2330–2340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conway, M. A., Anderson, S. J., Larsen, S. F., Donnelly, C. M., McDaniel, M. A., McClelland, A. G. R., et al. (1994). The formation of flashbulb memories. Memory & Cognition, 22, 326–343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conway, M. A., & Pleydell-Pearce, C. W. (2000). The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system. Psychological Review, 107(2), 261–288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Brigard, F. (2013). Is memory for remembering? Recollection as a form of episodic hypothetical thinking. Synthese, 191(2), 155–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Brigard, F. (2014). The nature of memory traces. Philosophy Compass, 9(6), 402–414.

  • Dennett, D. C. (1992). Consciousness explained (1st ed.). New York: Back Bay Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • DePaulo, B. M., Kashy, D. A., Kirkendol, S. E., Wyer, M. M., & Epstein, J. A. (1996). Lying in everyday life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(5), 979–995.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finkenauer, C., Luminet, O., Gisle, L., El-Ahmadi, A., Linden, M., & Philippot, P. (1998). Flashbulb memories and the underlying mechanisms of their formation: Toward an emotional-integrative model. Memory & Cognition, 26, 516–531.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flanagan, O. J. (1992). Consciousness reconsidered. Cambridge: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaffan, D. (1994). Scene-specific memory for objects: A model of episodic memory impairment in monkeys with fornix transection. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 6(4), 305–320.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gennaro, R. J. (2009). Animals, consciousness, and I-thoughts. In R. W. Lurz (Ed.), The philosophy of animal minds (pp. 184–200). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Graesser, A. C. (1981). Prose comprehension beyond the word. New York: Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Graesser, A. C., Singer, M., & Trabasso, T. (1994). Constructing inferences during narrative text comprehension. Psychological Review, 101(3), 371–395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green, M. C., & Brock, T. C. (2000). The role of transportation in the persuasiveness of public narratives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(5), 701–721.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Griffiths, D., Dickinson, A., & Clayton, N. (1999). Episodic memory: What can animals remember about their past? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 3(2), 74–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, C., & Hirst, W. (1989). On the representation of events: A study of orientation, recall, and recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 118(2), 136–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hassabis, D., & Maguire, E. A. (2007). Deconstructing episodic memory with construction. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11(7), 299–306.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hirst, W., Phelps, E. A., Buckner, R. L., Budson, A. E., Alexandru Cuc, D. E., Johnson, M. K., et al. (2009). Long-term memory for the terrorist attack of september 11: Flashbulb memories, event memories, and the factors that influence their retention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 138(2), 161–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, S. B. (2013). Making the case that episodic recollection is attributable to operations occurring at retrieval rather than to content stored in a dedicated subsystem of long-term memory. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 7, 3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, S. B. (2014). Autonoesis and belief in a personal past: An evolutionary theory of episodic memory indices. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 5(3), 427–447.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koriat, A., & Goldsmith, M. (1994). Memory in naturalistic and laboratory contexts: Distinguishing the accuracy-oriented and quantity-oriented approaches to memory assessment. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 123(3), 297–315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koriat, A., & Goldsmith, M. (1996). Monitoring and control processes in the strategic regulation of memory accuracy. Psychological Review, 103(3), 490–517.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koriat, A., Goldsmith, M., Schneider, W., & Nakash-Dura, M. (2001). The credibility of children’s testimony: Can children control the accuracy of their memory reports? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 79(4), 405–437.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kulkofsky, S., Wang, Q., & Ceci, S. J. (2008). Do better stories make better memories? Narrative quality and memory accuracy in preschool children. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 22(1), 21–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Labov, W. (2008). Oral narratives of personal experience. Cambridge Encyclopedia of the Language Sciences.

  • Labov, W., & Waletzky, J. (1967). Narrative analysis. In J. Helm (Ed.), Essays on the verbal and visual arts (pp. 12–44). Seattle: U. of Washington Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lassiter, G. D., & Slaw, R. D. (1991). The unitization and memory of events. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 120(1), 80–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loftus, E. F. (1993). The reality of repressed memories. American Psychologist, 48(5), 518–537.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mandler, J. M., & Johnson, N. S. (1977). Remembrance of things parsed: Story structure and recall. Cognitive Psychology, 9(1), 111–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mandler, J. M., Scribner, S., Cole, M., & DeForest, M. (1980). Cross-cultural invariance in story recall. Child Development, 51(1), 19–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, E. J., & Tversky, B. (2004). Spinning the stories of our lives. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18(5), 491–503.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCormack, T., & Hoerl, C. (2011). Tool use, planning and future thinking in children and animals. In T. McCormack, C. Hoerl, & S. Butterfill (Eds.), Tool use and causal cognition (p. 129). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • McKoon, G., Ratcliff, R., & Dell, G. S. (1986). A critical evaluation of the semantic-episodic distinction. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 12(2), 295–306.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mercado, E, I. I. I., Uyeyama, R. K., Pack, A. A., & Herman, L. M. (1999). Memory for action events in the bottlenosed dolphin. Animal Cognition, 2(1), 17–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Michaelian, K. (2010). The epistemology of forgetting. Erkenntnis, 74(3), 399–424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Michaelian, K. (2011a). The information effect: Constructive memory, testimony, and epistemic luck. Synthese, 190(12), 2429–2456.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Michaelian, K. (2011b). Is memory a natural kind? Memory Studies, 4(2), 170–189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, R. G. M. (2001). Episodic–like memory in animals: Psychological criteria, neural mechanisms and the value of episodic–like tasks to investigate animal models of neurodegenerative disease. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 356(1413), 1453–1465.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neisser, U. (2004). Memory development: New questions and old. Developmental Review, 24(1), 154–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, K. (1986). Event knowledge: Structure and function in development. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, K. (1993). The psychological and social origins of autobiographical memory. Psychological Science, 4(1), 7–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, K., & Fivush, R. (2004). The emergence of autobiographical memory: A social cultural developmental theory. Psychological Review, 111(2), 486–511.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newtson, D., & Engquist, G. (1976). The perceptual organization of ongoing behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 12(5), 436–450.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newtson, D., Engquist, G. A., & Bois, J. (1977). The objective basis of behavior units. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35(12), 847–862.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oatley, K. (1995). A taxonomy of the emotions of literary response and a theory of identification in fictional narrative. Poetics, 23(1–2), 53–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palmeri, T. J., & Nosofsky, R. M. (1995). Recognition memory for exceptions to the category rule. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21(3), 548–568.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parish, D. H., Sperling, G., & Landy, M. S. (1990). Intelligent temporal subsampling of American Sign Language using event boundaries. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 16(2), 282–294.

    Google Scholar 

  • Penn, D. C., & Povinelli, D. J. (2007). Causal cognition in human and nonhuman animals: A comparative, critical review. Annual Review of Psychology, 58(1), 97–118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Penn, D. C., Holyoak, K. J., & Povinelli, D. J. (2008). Darwin’s mistake: Explaining the discontinuity between human and nonhuman minds. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 31(02), 109–130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pillemer, D. B., Picariello, M. L., & Pruett, J. C. (1994). Very long-term memories of a salient preschool event. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 8(2), 95–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pillemer, D. B. (1998). Momentous events, vivid memories. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pipe, M.E., Dean, J., Canning, J., & Murachver, T. (1996). Narrating events and telling stories. In second international conference on memory, Abano, Italy.

  • Povinelli, D. J. (2000). Folk physics for apes: The chimpanzee’s theory of how the world works. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Price, D. W. W., & Goodman, G. S. (1990). Visiting the wizard: Children’s memory for a recurring event. Child Development, 61(3), 664–680.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ratner, H. H., Smith, B. S., & Dion, S. A. (1986). Development of memory for events. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 41(3), 411–428.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reese, E. (2002). Social factors in the development of autobiographical memory: The state of the art. Social Development, 11(1), 124–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, W. A., & Feeney, M. C. (2009). The comparative study of mental time travel. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13(6), 271–277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roediger, H. L. (1990). Implicit memory: Retention without remembering. American Psychologist, 45(9), 1043–1056.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roebers, C. M., Moga, N., & Schneider, W. (2001). The role of accuracy motivation on children’s and adults’ event recall. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 78(4), 313–329.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross, M. (1989). Relation of implicit theories to the construction of personal histories. Psychological Review, 96(2), 341–357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, D. C., & Umanath, S. (2015). Event memory: A theory of memory for laboratory, autobiographical, and fictional events. Psychological Review, 122(1), 1–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sakamoto, Y., & Love, B. C. (2004). Schematic influences on category learning and recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133(4), 534–553.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saylor, M. M., Baldwin, D. A., Baird, J. A., & LaBounty, J. (2007). Infants’ on-line segmentation of dynamic human action. Journal of Cognition and Development, 8(1), 113–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schacter, D. L. (1994). Priming and multiple memory systems: Perceptual mechanisms of implicit memory. In D. L. Schacter & E. Tulving (Eds.), Memory systems 1994. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schacter, D. L. (1999). The seven sins of memory: Insights from psychology and cognitive neuroscience. American Psychologist, 54(3), 182–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schank, R. C., & Abelson, R. B. (1977). Scripts, plans, goals, and understanding: An inquiry into human knowledge structures. Hillsdale, NJ/New York: L. Erlbaum Associates.

  • Schank, R. C. (1995). Tell me a story: Narrative and intelligence. Evanston, Ill: Northwestern University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schechtman, M. (1996). The constitution of selves. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schütz-Bosbach, S., & Prinz, W. (2007). Prospective coding in event representation. Cognitive Processing, 8(2), 93–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwan, S., Garsoffky, B., & Hesse, F. W. (2000). Do film cuts facilitate the perceptual and cognitive organization of activitiy sequences? Memory & Cognition, 28(2), 214–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwan, S., & Garsoffky, B. (2004). The cognitive representation of filmic event summaries. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18(1), 37–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, B. L., Meissner, C. A., Hoffman, M., Evans, S., & Frazier, Leslie D. (2003). Event memory and misinformation effects in a gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Animal Cognition, 7(2), 93–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shanton, K. (2010). Memory, knowledge and epistemic competence. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 2(1), 89–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sorabji, R. (1972). Aristotle on memory. London: Duckworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sperber, D. (1985). Anthropology and psychology: Towards an epidemiology of representations. Man, New Series, 20(1), 73–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spreng, R. N., Mar, R. A., & Kim, A. S. N. (2009). The common neural basis of autobiographical memory, prospection, navigation, theory of mind, and the default mode: A quantitative meta-analysis. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21(3), 489–510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stein, N. L. (1988). The development of children’s storytelling skill. In M. B. Franklin & S. S. Barten (Eds.), Child language: A reader (pp. 282–297). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suddendorf, T., & Corballis, M. C. (1997). Mental time travel and the evolution of the human mind. Genetic, Social & General Psychology Monographs, 123(2), 133.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suddendorf, T., & Corballis, M. C. (2007). The evolution of foresight: What is mental time travel, and is it unique to humans? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 30(03), 299–313.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suzuki, W. A., & Clayton, N. S. (2000). The hippocampus and memory: A comparative and ethological perspective. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 10(6), 768–773.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tomasello, M., & Kruger, A. C. (1992). Joint attention on actions: Acquiring verbs in ostensive and non-ostensive contexts. Journal of Child Language, 19(02), 311–333.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tomasello, M., Carpenter, M., Call, J., Behne, T., & Moll, H. (2005). Understanding and sharing intentions: The origins of cultural cognition. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28(05), 675–691.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trabasso, T., & van den Broek, P. (1985). Causal thinking and the representation of narrative events. Journal of Memory and Language, 24(5), 612–630.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trabasso, T., & Nickels, M. (1992). The development of goal plans of action in the narration of a picture story. Discourse Processes, 15(3), 249–275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Travis, Lisa. (1997). Goal based organization of event memory in toddlers. In Paulus Willem van den Broek, Patricia J. Bauer, & Tammy Bourg (Eds.), Developmental spans in event comprehension and representation: Bridging fictional and actual events. New York: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and semantic memory. Organization of Memory, pp. 381–402.

  • Tulving, E. (1985). Memory and consciousness. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 26(1), 1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tulving, E., & Markowitsch, H. J. (1998). Episodic and declarative memory: Role of the hippocampus. Hippocampus, 8(3), 198–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tulving, E., & Schacter, D. L. (1990). Priming and human memory systems. Science, 247(4940), 301–306.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tulving, E. (2005). Episodic memory and autonoesis: Uniquely human? In H. S. Terrace & Metcalfe (Eds.), The missing link in cognition: Origins of self-reflective consciousness. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Velleman, J. D. (2005). The self as narrator. In J. P. Christman (Ed.), Autonomy and the challenges to liberalism: new essays (pp. 56–76). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Visalberghi, E., & Tomasello, M. (1998). Primate causal understanding in the physical and psychological domains. Behavioural Processes, 42(2–3), 189–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, H. L., Conway, M. A., & Cohen, G. (2008). Autobiographical memory. In G. Cohen & A. C. Martin (Eds.), Memory in the real world. New York: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wynn, K. (1996). Infants’ individuation and enumeration of actions. Psychological Science, 7(3), 164–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zacks, J. M., & Tversky, B. (2001). Event structure in perception and conception. Psychological Bulletin, 127(1), 3–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zacks, J. M., Braver, T. S., Sheridan, M. A., Donaldson, D. I., Snyder, A. Z., Ollinger, J. M., et al. (2001). Human brain activity time-locked to perceptual event boundaries. Nature Neuroscience, 4(6), 651–655.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zacks, J. M., & Swallow, K. M. (2007). Event segmentation. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(2), 80–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zacks, J. M., Speer, N. K., Swallow, K. M., Braver, T. S., & Reynolds, J. R. (2007). Event perception: A mind-brain perspective. Psychological Bulletin, 133(2), 273–293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zacks, J. M., Speer, N. K., Vettel, J. M., & Jacoby, L. L. (2006). Event understanding and memory in healthy aging and dementia of the Alzheimer type. Psychology and Aging, 21(3), 466–482.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zwaan, R. A., & Radvansky, G. A. (1998). Situation models in language comprehension and memory. Psychological Bulletin, 123(2), 162–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank John Doris, Carl Craver, Daniel Povinelli, Kate Shrumm and Caroline Stone for their comments and suggestions on the earlier versions of this paper.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Philosophy-Neuroscience-Psychology Program, Department of Philosophy, Washington University in St.Louis, One Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO, 63130-4899, USA

    Nazim Keven

Authors
  1. Nazim Keven
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nazim Keven.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The author declares that he has no conflict of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Keven, N. Events, narratives and memory. Synthese 193, 2497–2517 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-015-0862-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-015-0862-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation